Integration and optimization of unit operations : review of unit operations from R&D to production : impacts of upstream and downstream process decisions

The chemical industry changes and becomes more and more integrated worldwide. This creates a need for information exchange that includes not only the principles of operation but also the transfer of practical knowledge. Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations provides up-to-date and practical information on chemical unit operations from the R&D stage to scale-up and demonstration to commercialization and optimization. A global collection of industry experts systematically discuss all innovation stages, complex processes with different unit operations, including solids processing and recycle flows, and the importance of integrated process validation. The book addresses the needs of engineers who want to increase their skill levels in various disciplines so that they are able to develop, commercialize and optimize processes. After reading this book, you will be able to acquire new skills and knowledge to collaborate across disciplines and develop creative solutions. Shows the impacts of upstream process decisions on downstream operations Provides troubleshooting strategies at each process stage Asks challenging questions to develop creative solutions to process problems Front Cover Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations: Review of Unit Operations from R and D to Production: Impacts of Upstream ... Copyright Contents Contributors About the editor Preface Chapter 1: Crystallization 1.1. Fundamentals and laboratory scale process development 1.1.1. Crystallizer design basics 1.1.2. Crystallizer design tradeoffs 1.1.3. Upstream variables affecting crystallization 1.1.4. Impact on downstream operations 1.2. Pilot scale crystallization studies 1.2.1. Objectives for a pilot plant 1.2.2. Scale-up criteria 1.3. Commercialization of crystallization processes References Chapter 2: Fermentation and downstream processing: Part 1 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Microbiology and biochemistry basics 2.3. Fermentation media and environment 2.4. Growth kinetics and substrate utilization 2.5. From vial to production fermenter 2.6. Oxygen transfer and utilization 2.7. Mixing in aerobic fermentation vessels 2.8. Sterilization 2.8.1. Batch sterilization 2.8.2. Continuous sterilization 2.8.3. Filter sterilization of liquids 2.8.4. Filter sterilization of air 2.9. Heat generation 2.10. Scale-up References Chapter 3: Fermentation and downstream processing: Part 2 3.1. Fermenter design 3.1.1. Fermenters without mechanical mixers 3.2. Fermenter instrumentation, control and operation 3.2.1. Temperature 3.2.2. pH 3.2.3. Dissolved oxygen concentration 3.2.4. Mixer speed 3.2.5. Pressure 3.2.6. Gas flow rate 3.2.7. Liquid flow rate 3.2.8. Foam 3.2.9. Exit gas composition 3.2.10. Level 3.2.11. Substrate concentration 3.2.12. Power input 3.2.13. Redox potential 3.3. Continuous culture 3.4. Downstream processing 3.4.1. Monosodium glutamate 3.4.2. Phenethyl alcohol 3.5. Concluding remarks Nomenclature References Chapter 4: Liquid filtration 4.1. Do you need a filter? 4.2. Lab testing before you choose the filter 4.3. Choosing the filter 4.3.1. Plate and frame filter press 4.3.2. Filter presses 4.3.3. Plate filters 4.3.4. Pressure leaf type filter 4.3.5. Nutsche filter 4.3.6. Polishing filter 4.4. The ABCs of liquid filtration 4.5. The mechanics of liquid filtration 4.5.1. Precoat 4.5.2. Filtration 4.5.3. Cleaning 4.5.4. Standby 4.6. Troubleshooting 4.7. The filter cake 4.8. Preventative maintenance program Further reading Chapter 5: Cake-building filter technologies 5.1. Batch processing of filter cakes 5.2. Contained filter presses for cake washing, dewatering, and drying 5.3. Nutsche filter and filter dryers 5.4. Continuous processing of filter cakes 5.4.1. Vacuum belt filters 5.4.2. Horizontal vacuum belt filters 5.4.3. Rotary vacuum drum filters 5.4.4. Rotary pressure filter 5.4.5. Pressurized vacuum drum filter Chapter 6: Centrifugation 6.1. Centrifuge choice and analysis of available equipment 6.1.1. Horizontal basket centrifuges 6.1.2. Vertical basket centrifuges 6.2. Typical centrifuge operation 6.3. Technical considerations of equipment selection 6.3.1. Design basis document 6.4. Other considerations of centrifuge operation 6.4.1. Centrifuge inerting 6.4.2. General operation 6.4.3. Safety interlocks 6.4.4. Out of balance monitor 6.4.5. Plough parked 6.5. Final remarks Chapter 7: Dryers 7.1. Purpose of drying 7.2. Dispersed solid-liquid system 7.3. Drying processes 7.4. Convective drying with hot gas 7.5. Conductive and radiative drying 7.6. Evaporation of liquid from a solid packing 7.7. Drying facilities 7.7.1. Grain-sunning ground 7.7.2. Tray dryer 7.7.3. Belt dryer 7.7.4. Rotary dryer (kiln) 7.7.5. Fixed bed dryer 7.7.6. Fluidized bed dryer 7.7.7. Pneumatic conveyor as dryer 7.7.8. Spray dryer 7.7.9. Impact mill as dryer 7.7.10. Rotating vessel dryer 7.7.11. Plate dryer 7.7.12. Roller dryer 7.7.13. Screw conveyor as dryer 7.7.14. Agitated mixer as dryer 7.8. Troubleshooting 7.8.1. Heat transfer 7.8.2. Level of vacuum 7.8.3. Formation of agglomerates and crust References Chapter 8: Pressure filter dryer 8.1. General considerations of using a pressure filter dryer 8.1.1. Pharma-specific considerations 8.2. Principles of the pressure filter dryer 8.3. Filter choice and analysis of available equipment 8.3.1. Selection of filter dryer type 8.3.1.1. Cost 8.3.1.2. Working volume 8.3.1.3. Cake discharge 8.3.1.4. Site requirements 8.3.1.5. Mechanical design features 8.4. Technical considerations of equipment selection 8.5. General operation of a pressure filter dryer 8.5.1. GMP issues and cleaning 8.5.2. Filter safety interlocks 8.5.3. Operational issues 8.6. Final remarks Chapter 9: Process automation systems 9.1. Process automation in production facilities 9.2. Process control system (continuous process) 9.2.1. Controlling the process 9.2.2. Operating the plant 9.2.3. Integrating automation systems 9.2.4. Enterprise interfaces 9.2.5. Types of process control system 9.3. Process control systems (batch process) 9.4. Safety instrumented systems 9.4.1. Identifying the hazards 9.4.2. Assessing the risks 9.4.3. High integrity pressure protection systems 9.4.4. Cybersecurity risk assessment 9.4.5. Validation and proving 9.5. Alarm management systems 9.6. Machinery protection 9.6.1. Vibration monitoring system 9.6.2. Compressor and turbine control systems 9.7. Measurement, and other fun things to do with instruments 9.7.1. Diagnostics-Is it working? 9.7.2. Control in the field 9.7.3. The growth of digital communications protocols 9.7.4. HART 9.7.5. Fieldbus 9.7.6. Ditching the wires 9.7.7. Instrument asset management systems (IAMS) 9.8. The effect of technology on process automation Chapter 10: Process automation life cycles 10.1. Planning for process automation 10.1.1. Operations and maintenance philosophy 10.1.2. Identify key automation systems and technology 10.1.3. Identify advanced control schemes 10.1.4. Estimate system size 10.1.5. Site planning overall philosophy 10.1.5.1. Process area instrument buildings size estimation 10.1.5.2. Central control room size estimation 10.2. Front end engineering design 10.2.1. Basic automation requirements 10.2.2. Advanced process control 10.2.3. The MAC, and why you should use one 10.2.4. Other automation systems 10.2.5. Functional safety 10.2.6. Change management for process automation 10.3. Delivery phase, detailed engineering, and procurement 10.3.1. Process automation design documentation 10.3.2. Automation system design and software configuration 10.3.3. Factory acceptance testing 10.3.4. Shipment and site preservation 10.4. Installation and commissioning 10.4.1. Manpower plan 10.4.2. Infrastructure and overheads plan 10.4.3. PAS media plan 10.4.4. PAS change management plan 10.4.5. PAS security plan 10.4.6. PAS integration plan 10.4.7. PAS maintenance plan 10.4.8. PAS user administration plan 10.4.9. PAS turnover plan 10.5. Automation system operation and obsolescence 10.5.1. Hardware maintenance and obsolescence 10.5.2. Software maintenance and change 10.5.3. Disaster recovery 10.6. Conclusion Chapter 11: Process automation platforms 11.1. Background 11.2. Staffing of a manufacturing facility 11.3. Finding the balance 11.4. The new paradigm of autonomous operations 11.5. Upgrading the level of automation 11.6. Where to start when considering investment in higher levels of autonomy 11.7. Conclusions Chapter 12: Mixing and blending 12.1. Introduction: Why mixing matters 12.2. Upstream considerations 12.2.1. Before the shafts 12.2.1.1. Types of tank jackets, advantage heat transfer 12.2.2. The first shaft 12.2.2.1. Case study example: Blade choice and efficiency 12.2.3. Distributive vs dispersive mixing 12.3. The second shaft 12.3.1. High speed dispersion and low speed scraping: The traditional dual-shaft mixer 12.3.2. More intense dispersion (double the shafts, quadruple the blades of a traditional disperser): The dual-shaft disp ... 12.3.3. Dual-shaft disperser case study and performance review 12.4. The third shaft 12.5. Additional mixer design considerations 12.6. Rheology considerations 12.7. Overmixing is just as bad as undermixing: Know the finishing point 12.7.1. Kitchen connection 12.7.2. Case study: ``Pancake lumps ́ ́ on the production floor 12.7.3. Compensating behaviors result from inadequate products 12.8. Reliable scale-up 12.8.1. Hydraulic ram discharge press 12.9. Mechanical aspects and troubleshooting 12.9.1. Blade health 12.9.2. Understanding shear (rates and flow regimes) 12.10. Case study: Why push toward efficiency? 12.10.1. The old way: Paradigm 12.10.2. The new way: Break the paradigm 12.10.3. What was saved? 12.10.4. In conclusion: Every perspective matters 12.11. Final remarks References Further reading Chapter 13: Process development and integration by mathematical modeling and simulation tools 13.1. Fundamentals and workflow 13.2. The steps for building a mathematical model 13.3. Steady-state and dynamic simulations 13.4. Process simulation for optimization 13.4.1. Construction of the optimization problem and its components 13.4.1.1. Degrees of freedom and constraints 13.4.1.2. Objective function 13.4.1.3. Classification of optimization problems 13.5. Process development workflow for continuous manufacturing 13.5.1. Process integration and steady-state simulation 13.5.2. Dynamic process modeling and control 13.6. Correlation between CQAs, CPPs, CMAs References Chapter 14: Process safety 14.1. Lab-scale operations 14.1.1. Safety and hazards 14.1.1.1. Process safety challenges 14.1.2. Key issues for lab-scale operation 14.1.2.1. Chemical reaction engineering 14.1.2.2. Unit operations 14.1.2.3. Process control and accuracy of measurement 14.2. Pilot plant operations 14.2.1. Safety and hazards 14.2.1.1. Process safety challenges Safety in design Safe handling of chemicals and solvents Safe handling of compressed gases 14.2.2. Key issues for pilot plant operations 14.2.3. Pilot plant sizing, issues, decisions, and trade-offs 14.2.3.1. Technology development stage 14.2.3.2. Complexity of the technology 14.2.3.3. Miscellaneous 14.3. Production scale operations 14.3.1. Safety and hazards 14.3.1.1. Process safety challenges 14.3.2. Key issues for production scale operation References Chapter 15: Process commissioning 15.1. Commissioning 15.2. Competency 15.3. Checks prior to the start of commissioning 15.4. Commissioning protocols 15.5. Specific process engineering responsibilities 15.6. Handover of the plant to the user 15.7. Overall recommendations for process engineers Appendix: Example Commissioning Protocol for a new Hydrochloric Acid Tanker Offloading Pump Chapter 16: Holistic process integration and optimization: Large-scale hybrid process applications 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Life cycles of generic activities for large-scale bulk chemicals production 16.3. Systems integration design for specialty products manufacture and sales 16.4. Gated process development with digital interlinks 16.5. Digital control life cycles of integrated large-scale production plants 16.5.1. Configuring communications 16.5.2. Multivariable devices communication 16.5.3. Loop converters 16.5.4. Multiplexers 16.6. Environmental impact monitoring and control 16.6.1. Green process applications in process industries 16.6.2. Industrial emissions control strategies using digital platforms 16.6.3. Digital environmental sensor technologies 16.6.4. Digital platform construction for multivariate process and environmental datasets 16.6.5. Coupling environmental and process chemistry 16.6.6. Environmental emissions records and HAZOP studies 16.7. Systems integration of plant operations within eco-industrial parks 16.8. Conclusions References Chapter 17: From idea to 1 million ton year commercial plant 17.1. The framework 17.2. The execution 17.2.1. Concept and laboratory stage 17.2.2. Micro reactor stage 17.2.3. Pilot plant stage 17.2.4. Demonstration plant stage 17.3. At last: Safety first Chapter 18: Scale-up challenges: Examples from refining and catalysis 18.1. Challenges in refining scale-up 18.2. Challenges in catalyst scale-up 18.3. Decision gate for catalyst scale-up References Chapter 19: Scale-up challenges: Wastewater 19.1. Challenges in wastewater treatment References Chapter 20: Hemp/biomass process steps 20.1. Hemp cultivation overview 20.2. Extraction 20.2.1. Ethanol 20.2.2. Gaseous hydrocarbon extraction 20.2.3. Liquid hydrocarbon extraction 20.2.4. Subcritical and supercritical carbon dioxide 20.2.5. Cosolvent injection 20.2.6. Solvent-less processes 20.2.7. Dry sifting 20.2.8. Cold water (kief) extraction 20.2.9. Distillation 20.3. Innovations and other extraction technologies 20.3.1. Ultrasonic processing 20.3.2. Hybrid microwave 20.3.3. Targeted cannabinoid salt precipitation 20.3.4. Winterization-purification 20.3.5. Organic solvent nanofiltration 20.4. Cannabinoid isolation 20.4.1. Decarboxylation 20.5. Conclusions 20.5.1. Hazardous installation requirements 20.5.2. Contamination and other process issues References Chapter 21: Techno-economic analyses 21.1. Introduction 21.1.1. Uses of a techno economic assessment 21.1.1.1. Stage-gate methodology for assessing projects 21.1.2. Decision making 21.1.2.1. Use of simple +/- grid for decision making 21.1.2.2. Use of Pugh matrix for decision making 21.2. Technology assessment 21.2.1. Definition of new technology 21.2.2. Feasibility: The first screen 21.2.3. Technology scalability to full-scale manufacturing 21.2.4. Technical success parameters 21.2.5. Types of technology risk 21.2.5.1. Why risks are not always addressed 21.2.6. Risk management plan 21.2.6.1. Risk identification 21.2.6.2. Risk prioritization 21.2.6.3. Assigning specific risk strategy 21.2.6.4. Risk tracking and reporting 21.2.7. Licensed technology 21.2.8. Investment in a start-up technology 21.2.9. Duplication of existing technology: A caution 21.2.10. Types of projects 21.2.11. Types of process technology 21.2.11.1. Large-scale commodities 21.2.11.2. Small volume specialty chemicals 21.2.11.3. Product by process 21.2.11.4. Hybrid and one-off processes 21.2.12. Batch vs. continuous mode 21.2.13. Technology package 21.3. Making cost-of-manufacturing estimates during the early stages of a project 21.3.1. Identifying variable and fixed costs 21.3.2. Variable costs 21.3.2.1. Raw materials 21.3.2.2. Waste treatment 21.3.2.3. Utilities 21.3.3. Fixed costs 21.3.3.1. Capital and capital depreciation 21.3.3.2. Operating costs 21.4. Putting the costs together: Example problems 21.5. Handling uncertainties during early project stages 21.6. Combining costs with revenues to compute economic indicators 21.6.1. Introduction to economic indicators 21.6.2. There are only two key questions 21.6.3. Risk and reward: Is there any data? 21.6.4. Financial indicators: Definitions 21.6.4.1. Discounted cash flow 21.6.4.2. Net present value (NPV) 21.6.5. Internal rate of return (IRR) or discounted cash flow percent (DCF%) 21.6.5.1. Return on investment (ROI) 21.6.5.2. Payback period 21.6.5.3. NPV example calculation #1 21.6.5.4. NPV example calculation #2 21.6.5.5. Discussion 21.6.6. Final summary References Chapter 22: Project management 22.1. Introduction 22.2. The project engineering process 22.2.1. Integrating course work in chemical process engineering 22.3. Predictive tools 22.4. Industries served by process engineers 22.5. Process plant components 22.6. Process safety and process engineering work flow 22.7. Putting it all together with practical knowledge 22.7.1. Selecting the site or living with the selection handed to you 22.7.1.1. Greenfield 22.7.1.2. Brownfield 22.7.1.3. Retrofit and expansion: Documenting existing layout 22.7.2. Site issues 22.7.2.1. Soil conditions 22.7.2.2. Utilities 22.7.2.3. Local codes and permits 22.7.2.4. Access and storage for construction, materials and equipment deliveries 22.7.2.5. Environmental impacts and erosion control 22.7.3. Common concerns: Funding, control of site 22.7.4. Community issues: Tax incentives, sales tax, resources, and workforce supply 22.8. Engineering: In-house resources and EPC firms 22.8.1. Forming the team 22.8.2. Selecting the engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) firm 22.8.3. The all-important PandID development 22.8.4. Controls and control room concerns 22.8.5. QA/QC needs 22.8.6. Facilities and equipment for operations and maintenance 22.8.7. Hazard analysis: Is it required or just a good practice 22.8.8. Project management 22.8.9. Scheduling 22.9. Project execution 22.9.1. Organization and planning 22.9.2. Sitework and utility supply 22.9.3. Foundations and steel erection 22.9.4. Setting equipment 22.9.5. Piping 22.9.6. Power distribution 22.9.7. Control networking and field instruments 22.9.8. Project controls: Schedule and budget 22.9.9. Operator training 22.9.10. Commissioning, qualification batches and testing and start-up Chapter 23: Decommissioning 23.1. Options for decommissioning 23.2. How to begin decommissioning 23.2.1. Decontamination 23.2.1.1. Decontamination stages 23.2.1.2. Implementation of the decommissioning project 23.2.2. Final steps of the decommissioning project Index Back Cover