Instrumentation and Process Control

Digital Resources. The Instrumentation and Process Control online Digital Resources self-study aid is designed to add to the content included in the textbook. The online Digital Resources includes Quick Quizzes® that provide an interactive review of key topics, an illustrated glossary, flash cards, media clips, Instrumentation resources, and related instrumentation reference material. Two chapters, Pneumatic Transmission and Control and Principles of Electricity are included.;Introduction to instrumentation -- Temperature measurement -- Pressure measurement -- Level measurement -- Flow measurement -- Analyzers -- Position measurement -- Transmission and communication -- Automatic control -- Final elements -- Safety systems -- Instrumentation and control applications.;Instrumentation and Process Control presents all aspects of instrumentation and builds on the quality of previous editions as an industry-leading instructional tool. This comprehensive textbook is a revision of the classic textbook by Franklyn W. Kirk, supplemented by the expertise of Thomas A. Weedon and Philip Kirk. INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL - Sixth Edition......Page 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 3 CONTENTS......Page 4 DIGITAL RESOURCES......Page 7 INTRODUCTION......Page 8 BOOK FEATURES......Page 10 USING QUICK RESPONSE (QR) CODES......Page 12 INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE GUIDE......Page 13 ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 14 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 15 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 16 Instrumentation and Industry......Page 17 Training......Page 20 INDUSTRY AND STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS......Page 21 Private Organizations......Page 23 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 24 Variables......Page 25 Control Elements......Page 26 Performance Characteristics......Page 27 Static Characteristics......Page 28 Dynamic Characteristics......Page 30 Closed Loops......Page 31 ON/OFF Control......Page 32 Time Proportional ON/OFF Control......Page 33 Instrument Calibration......Page 34 KEY TERMS......Page 35 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 36 INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS AND NUMBERING......Page 37 Level Measurement......Page 38 Flow Measurement......Page 40 Temperature Controller......Page 41 Recirculation Tank Temperature Measurement......Page 42 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 43 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 45 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 46 Fahrenheit and Rankine Scales......Page 47 Fahrenheit and CelsiusConversions......Page 48 Conduction......Page 49 Forced Convection......Page 50 Heat Capacity......Page 51 Specific Heat......Page 53 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 54 THERMAL EXPANSION......Page 55 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS......Page 56 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS......Page 57 PRESSURE-SPRING THERMOMETERS......Page 59 Liquid-Filled Pressure-SpringThermometers......Page 60 Bulb Location......Page 61 Response Time......Page 63 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 64 Seebeck Effect......Page 65 Thomson Effect......Page 66 Law of Intermediate Temperatures......Page 67 Measurement with a Cold Junction......Page 68 Cold Junction Compensation......Page 69 Thermocouple Construction......Page 70 Thermocouple Wires......Page 71 Constantan Thermocouples......Page 74 Sheathed Thermocouple Construction......Page 75 Thermopiles......Page 76 Thermocouple Pyrometers......Page 77 Null-Current Thermocouples......Page 78 RTD Construction......Page 79 NTC Thermistors......Page 80 PTC Thermistors......Page 81 SEMICONDUCTOR THERMOMETERS......Page 82 KEY TERMS......Page 83 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 84 Spectral Response......Page 85 Reflectivity......Page 86 Transmissivity......Page 87 IR THERMOMETER CONSTRUCTION......Page 88 Two-Color (Ratio) IR Thermometers......Page 89 Infrared Windows......Page 91 DISAPPEARING FILAMENT PYROMETERS......Page 92 THERMAL IMAGERS......Page 93 KEY TERMS......Page 94 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 95 THERMOWELLS......Page 96 Thermowell Construction......Page 97 Process Connections......Page 99 Thermowell Vibration......Page 101 Thermocouple Extension Wires......Page 102 Noise Reduction......Page 103 Galvanic Reaction......Page 104 PRACTICAL RTD MEASUREMENTS......Page 105 Three-Wire RTD Bridge......Page 106 CALIBRATION......Page 107 Dry Well and Microbath Calibrators......Page 108 Transmitter Calibration......Page 109 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 111 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 113 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 114 Fluid Pressure......Page 115 Atmospheric Pressure......Page 116 Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 117 Pascal’s Law......Page 118 Differential Pressure......Page 120 Units of Pressure Measurement......Page 121 KEY TERMS......Page 122 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 123 U-Tube Manometer Sizing......Page 124 Inclined-Tube Manometers......Page 125 Barometers......Page 127 Diaphragms......Page 128 Capsules......Page 129 Bellows......Page 130 KEY TERMS......Page 132 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 133 Resistance......Page 134 Temperature Compensation......Page 135 Capacitance......Page 136 Inductance......Page 137 Piezoelectric......Page 138 KEY TERMS......Page 140 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 141 Wet Legs......Page 142 Wet Leg Pressure Adjustment......Page 143 Moisture Condensation......Page 144 Measuring Liquids......Page 145 Sensing Lines......Page 146 Sealing Fluids......Page 148 GAUGE CALIBRATION......Page 150 Deadweight Testers......Page 151 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 152 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 153 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 154 Level and Volume......Page 155 Gauge Glasses......Page 156 Reflex Gauge Glasses......Page 157 Cable and Weight Systems......Page 158 Pressure Connections......Page 159 Modified Pressure Cells......Page 160 Bubblers......Page 162 Tape Floats......Page 163 Float-and-Dial Instruments......Page 164 Displacers......Page 165 KEY TERMS......Page 167 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 168 Capacitance......Page 169 Single-Point Capacitance Probes......Page 170 Capacitance Level Measurement......Page 172 CONDUCTIVITY AND INDUCTIVE PROBES......Page 173 Optical Liquid-Level Sensors......Page 175 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSORS......Page 176 THERMAL DISPERSION SENSORS......Page 177 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 178 Ultrasonic Point LevelMeasurement......Page 179 Tuning Forks......Page 180 Pulsed Radar......Page 181 Radar Applications......Page 182 LASERS......Page 183 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 184 Continuous Level Measurement......Page 185 Strain Gauge Load Cells......Page 186 Hydraulic Load Cells......Page 187 Piping Restraints......Page 188 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 190 Flow Properties......Page 191 LOAD CELL CALIBRATION......Page 192 Try Cocks......Page 194 Gauge Glass Blowdown......Page 195 Seal Connections......Page 196 Transmitter Calibration......Page 197 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 199 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 201 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 202 Flow Rate and Total Flow......Page 203 Density and Specific Gravity......Page 204 Laminar and Turbulent Flow......Page 205 Compressibility......Page 206 GAS LAWS......Page 207 Gay-Lussac’s Law......Page 208 Combined Gas Law......Page 209 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 210 Orifice Plates......Page 211 Venturi Tubes......Page 212 Pitot Tubes......Page 213 OPERATING PRINCIPLES......Page 214 Differential Pressure Measurements......Page 215 Pressure and Temperature Correction......Page 217 KEY TERMS......Page 218 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 219 Rotameters......Page 220 Modified Rotameters......Page 221 Bypass Meters......Page 222 Rotameter Sizing Tables......Page 223 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT FLOWMETERS......Page 224 TURBINE METERS......Page 226 PADDLE WHEEL METERS......Page 227 Parshall Flumes......Page 228 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 230 MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS......Page 231 Transit Time Ultrasonic Meters......Page 232 Vortex Shedding Meters......Page 233 Coriolis Meter Operation......Page 234 Thermal Mass Meters......Page 235 Belt Weighing Systems......Page 236 KEY TERMS......Page 237 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 238 Taps......Page 239 Differential Instrument Locations......Page 240 Boiler Airflow Measurement......Page 241 Integrators......Page 242 Flow Switches......Page 243 Rotameter Switches......Page 244 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 245 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 247 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 248 ANALYZERS......Page 249 Sample Transportation Lags......Page 250 Thermal Conductivity Analyzers......Page 251 Radiant-Energy Absorption Analyzers......Page 252 Nondispersive Infrared (NDIR) Analyzers......Page 254 Tunable Diode Laser AbsorptionSpectroscopy......Page 255 Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzers......Page 256 Zirconium Oxide Oxygen Analyzers......Page 258 Hydrogen-Specific Gas Analyzers......Page 260 Opacity Analyzers......Page 261 KEY TERMS......Page 262 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 263 HUMIDITY ANALYZERS......Page 265 Psychrometric Charts......Page 266 Hygrometers......Page 268 Thermohygrometers......Page 269 Dewpoint Analyzers......Page 270 Near Infrared (NIR) Moisture Analyzers......Page 271 Microwave Moisture Analyzers......Page 272 KEY TERMS......Page 274 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 275 Hydrometers......Page 276 Continuous Hydrometers......Page 277 Vibrating U-Tube (Coriolis) Density Analyzers......Page 278 Nuclear Radiation Density Analyzers......Page 279 Hydrostatic Pressure Density Analyzers......Page 280 Slurry Density Analyzers......Page 281 Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity......Page 282 Falling Piston Viscosity Analyzers......Page 283 Orifice Viscosity Analyzers......Page 284 Rheometers......Page 285 REFRACTIVE INDEX ANALYZERS......Page 286 KEY TERMS......Page 289 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 290 Conductivity Analyzers......Page 291 Electrodeless Conductivity Cells......Page 293 pH Analyzers......Page 294 pH Electrodes......Page 295 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) Analyzers......Page 296 Chromatography......Page 297 Liquid Chromatographic Analyzers......Page 298 Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 299 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)Analyzers......Page 300 KEY TERMS......Page 301 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 302 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 303 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 304 Mechanical Switch Output......Page 305 Electrical Proximity Sensors......Page 307 Sensor Output Circuits......Page 308 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors......Page 310 Photoelectric Proximity Sensors......Page 311 Through-Beam Mode......Page 312 Photoelectric Operating States......Page 313 Optical Speed Measuring......Page 314 KEY TERMS......Page 315 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 316 Actuation Directions......Page 317 Frequency Measurement......Page 318 Speed Sensing Alarms......Page 320 Web Guiding......Page 321 Continuous Web Loop Control......Page 322 SAFETY LIGHT CURTAINS......Page 323 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 324 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 325 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 326 Analog Data......Page 327 Current Transmission......Page 328 Voltage Transmission......Page 330 Frequency Transmission......Page 331 Transmission to Measurement Conversions......Page 332 KEY TERMS......Page 333 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 334 Decimal Numbers......Page 335 Binary Numbers......Page 336 Octal Numbers......Page 337 Hexadecimal (Hex) Numbers......Page 338 Decimal Conversions......Page 339 KEY TERMS......Page 340 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 341 NETWORK PRINCIPLES......Page 342 Network Configurations......Page 343 Ring Networks......Page 344 Network Addressing......Page 345 Network Protocols......Page 346 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) Circuits......Page 347 Source and Sink Circuits......Page 348 Parallel Circuits......Page 349 RS-232 Communication......Page 350 CABLE AND WIRING STANDARDS......Page 352 Optical Fiber......Page 353 KEY TERMS......Page 355 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 356 FIELDBUS SYSTEMS......Page 357 Physical Layers......Page 358 Industrial Ethernet......Page 359 FIELDBUS IMPLEMENTATIONS......Page 360 FOUNDATION......Page 361 Profibus......Page 363 HART......Page 364 DeviceNet......Page 365 Smart Distributed System (SDS)......Page 367 AS Interface (ASI)......Page 368 BACnet......Page 369 Network Variables......Page 370 KEY TERMS......Page 372 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 373 Frequency and Broadcast Power......Page 374 Interference......Page 376 Antenna Types......Page 377 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)......Page 378 Wireless Standards......Page 379 SECURITY AND ENCRYPTION......Page 380 WPA2......Page 381 Cellular Communications......Page 382 Virtual Static IP (VSIP)......Page 383 KEY TERMS......Page 384 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 385 Calculating Impedance......Page 386 Current Repeaters......Page 387 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)......Page 388 CONNECTORS......Page 389 TRANSMITTERS......Page 390 Smart Transmitters......Page 391 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 393 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 395 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 396 AUTOMATIC CONTROL......Page 397 Self-Regulation......Page 398 Load Changes......Page 399 Process Gain......Page 400 Nonlinear Process Gain......Page 401 Lags......Page 402 Measurement Signal Conditioning......Page 406 Transmitter Dynamic Gain......Page 407 Setpoints......Page 409 Control Loops......Page 411 Control Actions......Page 412 Direct Action......Page 413 Setpoint Tracking......Page 414 Alarms......Page 416 KEY TERMS......Page 417 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 418 ON/OFF Control......Page 419 Proportional Control......Page 420 Output Bias......Page 424 Offset......Page 426 Open Loop Response Diagram......Page 428 Integral (I) Control......Page 429 Derivative (D) Control......Page 432 Adaptive Gain Control......Page 434 Feedforward Control......Page 436 Expert Systems......Page 438 Fuzzy Input Calculations......Page 439 Neural Networks......Page 440 KEY TERMS......Page 442 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 444 TUNING COEFFICIENTS......Page 445 TUNING PERFORMANCE STANDARDS......Page 446 Other Standards......Page 447 TUNING METHODS......Page 449 Setpoint Step Change Method......Page 450 Tuning Map Method......Page 453 Ziegler-Nichols Closed Loop Tuning......Page 454 Ziegler-Nichols Open Loop Tuning......Page 455 KEY TERMS......Page 457 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 458 DIGITAL CONTROLLERS......Page 459 Direct Computer Control Systems......Page 460 Distributed Control Systems (DCSs)......Page 461 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) ......Page 462 Null-Balance......Page 463 Analog Output......Page 464 PC-Based Display Systems......Page 465 CONFIGURATION FORMATS......Page 466 Function Blocks......Page 467 Structured Text......Page 469 Sequential Function Charts......Page 470 KEY TERMS......Page 472 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 473 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 475 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 476 CONTROL VALVES......Page 477 Valve Flow Characteristics......Page 478 Piping Resistance Effects......Page 479 Flashing and Cavitation......Page 480 Critical Pressure Ratio......Page 481 Valve Sizing......Page 482 Sliding Stem Valves......Page 483 Globe Valves......Page 484 Split Body Valves......Page 487 Rotary Shaft Valves......Page 488 Ball Valves......Page 489 Eccentric Cam Valves......Page 490 Direct-Acting Valves (Solenoids)......Page 491 KEY TERMS......Page 493 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 494 Spring-Loaded Pressure Regulators......Page 495 Air-Loaded Pressure Regulators......Page 497 Differential Pressure Regulators......Page 498 Temperature Self-Operating Regulators......Page 500 Opposed-Blade Dampers......Page 501 Damper Construction......Page 502 KEY TERMS......Page 503 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 504 ACTUATORS......Page 505 Actuator Pressure and Force......Page 506 Pneumatic Rotary Piston Actuators......Page 509 Damper Actuators......Page 510 Spring-Return Solenoid Actuators......Page 511 Double-Acting Solenoid Actuators......Page 512 Current-to-Pneumatic (I/P) Transducers......Page 514 Air Supply......Page 515 Relays......Page 516 Linear Actuator Positioners......Page 517 Rotary Actuator Positioners......Page 518 Split Range Operation......Page 519 Compressor-Discharge Pressure Control......Page 520 Flow Characteristic Change......Page 521 KEY TERMS......Page 522 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 523 Blowers, Fans, and Compressors......Page 524 Pumps......Page 525 ELECTRIC POWER CONTROLLERS......Page 526 Electromechanical Relays......Page 527 Output Circuits......Page 529 KEY TERMS......Page 531 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 532 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 533 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 534 Personal Protective Equipment......Page 535 Electrical Personal Protection......Page 536 Safety Valves......Page 537 Relief Valves......Page 539 Valve Construction......Page 540 Fire......Page 542 Fuel Safety Shutoff Valves......Page 543 Conservation Vents......Page 544 RUPTURE DISCS......Page 545 Conventional Metal Rupture Discs......Page 546 Operating Ratio......Page 547 Flame Detectors......Page 549 ALARM SYSTEMS......Page 551 First-Out Alarms......Page 552 Combustible Gas Detectors......Page 553 Toxic Gas Detectors......Page 554 KEY TERMS......Page 556 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 558 Divisions......Page 560 Groups......Page 561 Electrical Enclosures......Page 562 Enclosures for Hazardous (Classified)Locations......Page 564 Conduit Seals......Page 565 Intrinsically Safe Systems......Page 566 Intrinsic Barriers......Page 568 KEY TERMS......Page 569 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 570 Risks......Page 571 Event Likelihood......Page 572 TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS......Page 573 Programmable Electronic Systems......Page 574 Safety PLC System Testing......Page 575 KEY TERMS......Page 576 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 577 SECTION OBJECTIVES......Page 579 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES......Page 580 INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS......Page 581 Batch Processes......Page 582 SPLIT RANGE CONTROLS......Page 583 Heating and Cooling Services......Page 584 Priority Usage Selections......Page 586 Throttling Range Increase......Page 587 HIGH AND LOW SELECTORS......Page 588 Low Selectors......Page 589 Storage Tank Level and Flow Control......Page 590 LIMIT CONTROLS......Page 591 Gap Action Control......Page 593 CASCADE CONTROL......Page 594 Internal Functions......Page 597 Secondary Controller Local Setpoint......Page 601 Secondary Controller Manual Operation......Page 603 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 606 HEAT EXCHANGERS......Page 607 Cooling Service......Page 608 Steam-Controlled Heat Exchangers......Page 609 Condensate-Level-Controlled Heat Exchangers......Page 611 JACKETED REACTORS......Page 612 Circulated Water Temperature Control......Page 613 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 616 SMOOTH TRANSFER OF PRESSURE CONTROL......Page 617 Pump-Up Level Control......Page 620 Float-Switch Level Sensors......Page 621 Pump-Down Control Circuits......Page 623 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 625 RATIO CONTROLLERS......Page 626 Ratio Controller Local Setpoint......Page 627 Mixing Ratio Control......Page 630 Splitting Ratio Control......Page 632 Basic Air-Fuel Ratio Control Systems......Page 634 Lead-Lag Air-Fuel Ratio Control Systems......Page 636 Oxygen Trim Control......Page 637 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 641 Condensate Conductivity Monitoring......Page 642 Flow High and Low Level Selector System......Page 643 Boiler Drum Level and Feedwater Flow Control......Page 645 Normal Operational Sequences......Page 648 KEY TERMS......Page 650 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 651 Chapter 3 - Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams......Page 653 Chapter 8 - Practical Temperature Measurement and Calibration......Page 654 Chapter 12 - Practical Pressure Measurement and Calibration......Page 655 Chapter 17 - Practical Level Measurement and Calibration......Page 656 Chapter 22 - Practical Flow Measurement......Page 657 Chapter 26 - Electrochemical and Composition Analyzers......Page 658 Chapter 30 - Digital Numbering Systems and Codes......Page 659 Chapter 34 - Practical Transmission and Communication......Page 660 Chapter 38 - Digital and Electric Controllers......Page 661 Chapter 42 - Variable-Speed Drives and Electric Power Controllers......Page 662 Chapter 46 - General Control Techniques......Page 663 Chapter 50 - Analysis and Multivariable Control......Page 664 Table of Contents......Page 665 Instrument Tag Identification......Page 666 Selected Instrumentation Symbols......Page 667 Selected Primary Element Symbols......Page 668 Instrumentation Line Symbols......Page 670 Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 671 Hazardous Locations......Page 672 A......Page 673 B......Page 674 C......Page 675 D......Page 677 F......Page 679 G......Page 680 H......Page 681 J......Page 682 M......Page 683 N......Page 684 O......Page 685 P......Page 686 R......Page 688 S......Page 689 T......Page 691 V......Page 693 Z......Page 694 B......Page 695 D......Page 696 F......Page 697 I......Page 698 N......Page 699 P......Page 700 R......Page 701 T......Page 702 W......Page 703 Z......Page 704 Instrumentation and Process Control is a comprehensive resource that provides a technician-level approach to instrumentation used in process control. With an emphasis on common industrial applications, this textbook covers the four fundamental instrumentation measurements of temperature, pressure, level, and flow, in addition to position, humidity, moisture, and typical liquid and gas measuring instruments. Fundamental scientific principles, detailed illustrations, descriptive photographs, and concise text are used to present the following instrumentation topics: Process control and factory automation measurement instruments and applications Control valves and other final elements Digital communication systems and controllers Overview of control strategies for process control Safety systems and installation in hazardous locations Systems approach to integration of instruments in process control