Information Technology for Peace and Security: IT Applications and Infrastructures in Conflicts, Crises, War, and Peace (Technology, Peace and Security I Technologie, Frieden und Sicherheit)

Technological and scientific progress, especially the rapid development in information technology (IT) and artificial intelligence (AI), plays a crucial role regarding questions of peace and security. This textbook, extended and updated in its second edition, addresses the significance, potential of IT, as well as the challenges it poses, with regard to peace and security. It introduces the reader to the concepts of peace, conflict, and security research, especially focusing on natural, technical and computer science perspectives. In the following sections, it sheds light on cyber conflicts, war and peace, cyber arms control, cyber attribution, infrastructures, artificial intelligence, as well ICT in peace and conflict. Foreword Editor’s Preface Contents The Editors The Authors List of Figures List of Tables Part I Introduction and Fundamentals 1 An Overview and Introduction to Information Technology for Peace and Security Abstract 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Introduction and Fundamentals (Part I) 1.3 Cyber Conflicts and War (Part II) 1.4 Cyber Peace (Part III) 1.5 Cyber Arms Control (Part IV) 1.6 Cyber Infrastructures (Part V) 1.7 Artificial Intelligence (Part VI) 1.8 ICT in Peace and Conflict (Part VII) 1.9 Outlook (Part VII) 1.10 Didactical Information 1.11 Exercises 2 Peace Informatics: Bridging Peace and Conflict Studies with Computer Science Abstract 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Foundations and Important Terminology 2.2.1 Peace and Violence 2.2.1.1 Positive/Negative Peace and Direct/Cultural/Structural Violence 2.2.1.2 Cyber Peace 2.2.2 Armed Conflict and War 2.2.2.1 War as well as Armed, State-based, Non-State and Minor-Armed Conflict 2.2.2.2 Cyber War, Conflict, Warfare and Attack and Hybrid Warfare 2.2.3 Espionage, Sabotage, Subversion, Attribution and Defence 2.2.4 Information Warfare 2.2.5 Dual-Use Technologies 2.2.6 Security and Safety, Human, Cyber and IT Security 2.3 Peace and Conflict Studies and Technical Peace Research 2.3.1 Peace and Conflict Studies 2.3.2 Natural Science and Technical Peace Research 2.4 Computer Science, Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence 2.4.1 Computer Science 2.4.2 Cyber Security 2.4.3 Artificial Intelligence 2.5 Peace Informatics 2.6 Conclusion 2.7 Exercises Appendix: Research Landscape in Germany References 3 Natural Science/Technical Peace Research Abstract 3.1 Science, Technology, War and Peace 3.2 Basic Facts About the International System 3.2.1 Security Dilemma 3.2.2 Qualitative Arms Race, Stability 3.3 An Ethical Approach to Peace and International Security 3.4 Limiting and Reducing Military Threats 3.4.1 Arms Control and Disarmament 3.4.2 The Importance of Verification 3.4.3 Confidence and Security Building Measures 3.4.4 Non-Proliferation, Export Control and Dual-Use 3.5 Natural Science/Technical Peace Research: A Diverse Field 3.6 Natural Science/Technical Peace Research in ICT 3.6.1 Research for Preventing Cyber War 3.6.2 ICT Research for Other Fields of Peace and International Security 3.7 Conclusion 3.8 Exercises References Part II Cyber Conflicts and War 4 Information Warfare: From Doctrine to Permanent Conflict Abstract 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Technology Plus Doctrine: Information Warfare 2.0 4.2.1 USA: Elaborate Concepts for Information Warfare 4.2.2 Reactions from Russia 4.2.3 The People’s Republic of China Model of Information Warfare 4.2.4 Common Understanding 4.3 Information Warfare 3.0: Automating and Intensifying Information and Cyber Warfare 4.3.1 USA: Elaborate Weapons Under Unified Command 4.3.2 New Russian Strategy: The Gerasimov-Doctrine 4.3.3 Reaction from China: Strategic Support Force 4.3.4 Advances in Germany: A Unified Intelligence Command 4.3.5 Information Warfare: Established in Military Organisation 4.3.6 Information and Cyber Warfare as Permanent Threat Worldwide 4.4 “Hybrid Warfare”: Expanding Information Warfare 4.5 Conclusion: A New Security Architecture Needed 4.6 Exercises References 5 Cyber Espionage and Cyber Defence Abstract 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Cyber Espionage 5.3 Threats to Information Security 5.3.1 Protection Goals 5.3.2 Attack Trees 5.4 Defences 5.4.1 Security Controls 5.4.2 Security Design Principles 5.5 Attack Vectors and Common Defences 5.5.1 Gaining Access to Data on Internal Systems 5.5.2 Gaining Access to Data on Exposed Systems 5.6 Exploiting Vulnerabilities 5.6.1 Vulnerabilities, Exploits, and Backdoors 5.6.2 Known Vulnerabilities 5.6.3 Zero-Day Vulnerabilities 5.6.4 NOBUS Vulnerabilities 5.7 Conclusion 5.8 Exercises References 6 Darknets and Civil Security Abstract 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Defining Darknets 6.2.1 Definitions 6.2.1.1 The Term “Darknet” in the Context of the Internet 6.2.1.2 Design Goals 6.2.2 Fundamentals of the Tor Network 6.2.2.1 Onion-Routing 6.2.2.2 Hidden Services 6.3 Darknets: An Issue of Civil Security 6.3.1 Marketplaces for Everything 6.3.2 Trading Cyber Weapons 6.3.3 Destabilisation 6.3.4 Civil Resistance 6.3.5 Darknets as Soft Power Weapons 6.3.6 Darknets: Ambivalence Incarnated 6.4 Securitisation 6.4.1 Securitisation as a Concept 6.4.2 The Anatomy of a Securitisation Speech Act 6.4.3 Darknets as Playground for Securitisation 6.5 Conclusion 6.6 Exercises References Part III Cyber Peace 7 From Cyber War to Cyber Peace Abstract 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Current Challenges of Cyber War 7.2.1 Militarisation of Cyberspace 7.2.2 International Law in Cyberspace 7.2.2.1 Tallinn Manual 7.2.2.2 Virtuality of Cyberspace 7.2.2.3 Characteristics of the Application of Malware 7.2.3 Lacking International Norms and Definitions 7.2.3.1 Cyber War vs. Cybercrime 7.2.3.2 Binding Norms 7.2.3.3 Attribution Problem 7.2.3.4 Elaboration of International Norms and Cyber Weapons 7.2.4 Difficulties for Arms Control in Cyberspace 7.2.4.1 Active Defence 7.2.4.2 Dual-Use 7.2.4.3 Computer Emergency Response Teams 7.3 Measures for Cyber Peace 7.3.1 Cooperative and Declaratory Approaches 7.3.2 Informatory Approaches 7.3.3 Technical Approaches 7.3.4 Cyber Peace Campaign 7.4 Conclusions 7.5 Exercises References 8 Dual-Use Information Technology: Research, Development and Governance Abstract 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History and Definitions of Dual-Use 8.3 Governing Dual-Use Information Technologies 8.3.1 Cryptography 8.3.2 Intrusion Software 8.3.3 Artificial Intelligence 8.4 Technology Assessment and Design 8.5 The Civil Clause at TU Darmstadt 8.6 Conclusion 8.7 Exercises References 9 Confidence and Security Building Measures for Cyber Forces Abstract 9.1 Military Preparations for Cyber War and the Need for Confidence and Security Building Measures 9.2 CSBMs for Conventional Armed Forces 9.3 Problems with the Transfer of Traditional CSBMs to Cyber Forces 9.4 International Efforts for CBMs for Cyberspace 9.5 Potential CSBMs for Cyber Forces 9.6 Conclusions 9.7 Exercises References Part IV Cyber Arms Control 10 Arms Control and Its Applicability to Cyberspace Abstract 10.1 What is Arms Control and Why is It Necessary? 10.2 Historical Examples of Arms Control 10.2.1 Arms Control for Nuclear Weapons Technology 10.2.2 Arms Control for Biological and Chemical Weapons Technology 10.2.3 Arms Control Treaties for Conventional Weapons and the Outer Space 10.3 Arms Control Measures 10.3.1 Confidence Building and Verification as Important Parts of Arms Control Measures 10.3.2 Preventive Arms Control 10.3.3 An Overview on Existing Measures of Arms Control 10.4 The Challenges of Arms Control Measures in Cyberspace 10.5 Important First Approaches of Arms Control in Cyberspace 10.5.1 The Wassenaar Export Control Arrangement and Its Extension from 2013 10.5.2 The 2018 Proposal of the EU Parliament for a Harmonised Dual-Use Export Controls Regulation 10.5.3 Recommendations of the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts from 2015 10.5.4 Proposals for Confidence Building Measures by the OSCE 10.5.5 State-Driven Proposals for Norms and Responsibilities of State Behaviour in Cyberspace 10.6 Conclusion 10.7 Exercises References 11 Verification in Cyberspace Abstract 11.1 What is Verification? 11.2 The Special Characteristics of the Cyberspace Domain 11.2.1 The Problems of Counting Data in a Virtual, Distributed Space 11.2.2 Dual-Use: Technology for Civilian Purposes and Military Applications 11.2.3 Differentiation Between Defence and Offence 11.2.4 Established Verification Measures and Their Problems When Applied to Cyberspace 11.3 Approaches to Verification for Cyberspace 11.3.1 Measurable Parameters of Cyberspace 11.3.2 Approaches for Verification Measures in Cyberspace 11.3.3 Implementation of Verification Measures 11.4 Conclusion and Outlook 11.5 Exercises References 12 Attribution of Cyber Attacks Abstract 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background 12.2.1 Principles of Cyber Attacks 12.2.2 Communication Lines of Cyber Attacks 12.2.3 Actors in Cyberspace 12.3 Technical Analysis 12.3.1 Network Analysis 12.3.2 Analysis of Malware 12.4 Threat Intelligence 12.5 Cyber Intelligence 12.5.1 Cyber Surveillance 12.5.2 Intelligence Cooperation 12.5.3 Counterespionage in Cyberspace 12.5.4 Conventional Espionage 12.6 Attribution in Cyber War 12.7 Dimensions of Attribution 12.8 Conclusion 12.9 Exercises References Part V Cyber Infrastructures 13 Secure Critical Infrastructures Abstract 13.1 Introduction to Critical Infrastructures 13.2 Characteristics of Infrastructures 13.3 Critical Infrastructure Sectors 13.4 Essential Concepts of Critical Infrastructure Protection 13.4.1 CI Hierarchies and System-Of-Systems Approach 13.4.2 (Inter-)Dependencies 13.4.3 Vulnerability of CI and the Vulnerability Paradox 13.4.4 Criticality 13.5 Actors and Responsibilities 13.5.1 Providers, Operators, and Suppliers 13.5.2 State and Public Authorities 13.5.3 Civil Society and Public–Private-Partnerships 13.6 Conclusions 13.7 Exercises References 14 Resilient Critical Infrastructures Abstract 14.1 Defining Resilience 14.2 Making Critical Infrastructures Resilient 14.3 Safety Versus Security 14.4 Conclusions 14.5 Exercises References 15 Security of Critical Information Infrastructures Abstract 15.1 Introduction to Critical Information Infrastructures 15.1.1 Example 1: Cambridge Analytica 15.1.2 Example 2: WannaCry Ransomware Attack 15.1.3 Example 3: Mirai Botnet 15.1.4 Example 4: Microsoft Tay 15.2 Characteristics of Critical Information Infrastructures 15.3 Threats for Critical Information Infrastructures 15.4 Protection of Critical Information Infrastructures 15.4.1 Analysis and Assessment 15.4.2 Implement Protective Mechanisms 15.4.3 Monitoring 15.4.4 Incident Response 15.4.5 Reconstitution and Improvement 15.4.6 Education and Knowledge Sharing 15.4.7 Third Party Attestation 15.5 Conclusions 15.6 Exercises References Part VI Artificial Intelligence 16 Artificial Intelligence and Cyber Weapons Abstract 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Cyber Weapons and the Militarisation of Cyberspace 16.2.1 The Current Situation of State-Driven Cyber Attacks 16.3 How the Technology of Cyber Weapons and Its Application Will Evolve 16.4 How Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Could Influence Cyber Weapons 16.4.1 Explainability and Responsibility of AI-Enabled Cyber Weapons 16.4.2 AI and the Pitfalls of the Attribution of Cyber Attacks 16.5 The Negative Impact on Arms Control of Artificial Intelligence in Cyber Weapons 16.6 How Can Artificial Intelligence Support Cyber Arms Control? 16.7 Conclusion 16.8 Exercises References 17 Unmanned Systems: The Robotic Revolution as a Challenge for Arms Control Abstract 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Reasons for Armament 17.2.1 Why Do States Arm? 17.2.2 Armament and Technology – the New Driving Force 17.3 What Are Military Robots? 17.3.1 The Definition of Robot 17.3.2 The History of Military Robotics: Example UAVs 17.4 The Trend Towards Autonomy in Weapon Systems 17.4.1 Specific Autonomous Functions: From Navigation to Swarming 17.4.2 The Military’s Rationale for More Autonomy 17.4.3 The Debate About Autonomous Weapon Systems 17.5 Autonomous Weapons and Arms Control 17.5.1 Arms Control Theory – a Primer 17.5.2 The Impact of Military Robots on Stability and the Problems for Arms Control 17.6 Conclusion: Arms Control and Modern IT – Simply Incompatible? 17.7 Exercises References Part VII ICT in Peace and Conflict 18 Cultural Violence and Peace Interventions in Social Media Abstract 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Classifying Social Media Use 18.3 Case I: The Dissemination of Fabricated, Manipulated and Misinterpreted Content 18.3.1 Dissemination of Fake News in Social Media 18.3.2 Countermeasures Against Fake News 18.4 Case II: Cyber Abuse as a Vehicle of Violence Against Individuals and Groups 18.4.1 Cyber Bullying and Hate Speech in Social Media 18.4.2 Strategies and Technologies for Dealing with Cyber Abuse 18.5 Case III: Propaganda and Recruitment in the Realm of Online Terrorism 18.5.1 Propaganda and Recruitment in Social Media 18.5.2 Counterterrorism in Social Media 18.6 Discussion and Conclusion 18.7 Exercises References 19 Political Activism on Social Media in Conflict and War Abstract 19.1 Introduction 19.2 State of the Art 19.3 Case Studies of Practices Applied by Political Activists 19.3.1 Ukraine: Historical Background and Activism 19.3.2 Palestine: Historical Background and Activism 19.3.3 Syria: Historical Background and Activism 19.3.4 Republika Srpska 19.3.5 FARC-EP in Columbia 19.3.6 Enabling and Disenabling Activism 19.4 Discussion 19.4.1 Power Asymmetry 19.4.2 Entangled Online- and Offline Realities 19.4.3 Critical Perspective on Social Media 19.5 Conclusions 19.6 Exercises References 20 Digital Peacebuilding and PeaceTech Abstract 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Generations of Peacebuilding and Technology 20.3 Spheres of Digital Peacebuilding 20.4 Technology for Human Security 20.4.1 Digital Conflict Analysis 20.4.2 Digital Crisis Mapping and Early Warning of Violence 20.4.3 Digital Violence Prevention 20.5 Technology for Social Cohesion 20.5.1 Digital Literacy and Peace Education 20.5.2 Digital Dialogue 20.5.3 Digital Democracy and Governance 20.6 Technology for Social Justice 20.6.1 Digital Witnessing, Citizen Journalism and Human Rights Investigations 20.6.2 Digital Strategic Communication and Storytelling 20.6.3 Digital Social Movements and Upstanding 20.7 Takeaways and Outlook for Digital Peacebuilding 20.8 Exercises References Part VIII Outlook 21 Teaching Peace Informatics: Reflections from Lectures and Exercises Abstract 21.1 Introduction: Interdisciplinary Research and Teaching Between Technology and Peace 21.2 The Course: Information Technology for Peace and Security 21.2.1 Course Concept: Preparation and Knowledge Transfer 21.2.2 Lecture for Knowledge Transfer and Discussion of Topics 21.2.3 Exercise for Application, Group Work, and Presentation 21.2.4 Assessment 21.3 Evaluation and Reflection 21.4 Conclusion: Core Observations 21.4.1 Peace and Security Policy Necessity 21.4.2 Disciplinary Boundaries of Natural, Engineering, or Social Sciences 21.4.3 Complementary Knowledge and Competence Acquisition 21.4.4 Concept Transfer and Sustainable Applicability References 22 Outlook: The Future of IT in Peace and Security Abstract 22.1 Motivation 22.2 Introduction and Fundamentals (Part I) 22.3 Cyber Conflict and War (Part II) 22.4 Cyber Peace (Part III) 22.5 Cyber Arms Control (Part IV) 22.6 Cyber Infrastructures (Part V) 22.7 Artificial Intelligence (Part VI) 22.8 ICT in Peace and Conflict (Part VII) 22.9 Outlook (Part VII) Index