Industrially Important Fungi for Sustainable Development: Volume 1: Biodiversity and Ecological Perspectives (Fungal Biology)

Fungi are an understudied, biotechnologically valuable group of organisms. Due to their immense range of habitats, and the consequent need to compete against a diverse array of other fungi, bacteria, and animals, fungi have developed numerous survival mechanisms. However, besides their major basic positive role in the cycling of minerals, organic matter and mobilizing insoluble nutrients, fungi have other beneficial impacts: they are considered good sources of food and active agents for a number of industrial processes involving fermentation mechanisms as in the bread, wine and beer industry. A number of fungi also produce biologically important metabolites such as enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics and several products of important pharmaceutical use; still others are involved in the production of single cell proteins. The economic value of these marked positive activities has been estimated as approximating to trillions of US dollars. The unique attributes of fungi thus herald greatpromise for their application in biotechnology and industry. Since ancient Egyptians mentioned in their medical prescriptions how they can use green molds in curing wounds as the obvious historical uses of penicillin, fungi can be grown with relative ease, making production at scale viable. The search for fungal biodiversity, and the construction of a living fungi collection, both have incredible economic potential in locating organisms with novel industrial uses that will lead to novel products. Fungi have provided the world with penicillin, lovastatin, and other globally significant medicines, and they remain an untapped resource with enormous industrial potential. Volume 1 of Industrially Important Fungi for Sustainable Development provides an overview to understanding fungal diversity from diverse habitats and their industrial application for future sustainability. It encompasses current advanced knowledge of fungal communities and their potential biotechnological applications in industry and allied sectors. The book will be useful to scientists, researchers, and students of microbiology, biotechnology, agriculture, molecular biology, and environmental biology. Foreword Second Foreword Preface Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Biodiversity and Ecological Perspective of Industrially Important Fungi An Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fungal Enzymes and Their Applications 1.2.1 Cellulases 1.2.1.1 Textiles 1.2.1.2 Food Industry 1.2.1.3 Pulp and Paper 1.2.1.4 Detergent Industry 1.2.1.5 Wine and Brewery Industry 1.2.1.6 Cellulases from Endophytic Fungi and Applications 1.2.2 Xylanases 1.2.2.1 Textiles 1.2.2.2 Food Industry 1.2.2.3 Paper and Pulp Industry 1.2.2.4 Xylanases from Endophytic Fungi and Their Applications 1.2.3 Amylases 1.2.3.1 Textiles 1.2.3.2 Paper and Pulp 1.2.3.3 Detergent Industry 1.2.3.4 Bread and Baking Industry 1.2.3.5 Amylases from Endophytic Fungi and Their Applications 1.2.4 Pectinase 1.2.4.1 Wine Processing 1.2.4.2 Tea and Coffee Processing 1.2.4.3 Pectinases from Endophytic Fungi and Their Applications 1.2.5 Lipases 1.2.5.1 Pulp and Paper 1.2.5.2 Leather 1.2.5.3 Food Industry 1.2.5.4 Detergent Industry 1.2.5.5 Biodiesel Production 1.2.5.6 Lipases from Endophytic Fungi and Their Application 1.2.6 Laccases 1.2.6.1 Wine Stabilization 1.2.6.2 Baking Industry 1.2.6.3 Textile Industry 1.2.6.4 Pharmaceutical Industry 1.2.7 Proteases 1.2.7.1 Food Industry 1.2.7.2 Detergent Industry 1.2.7.3 Leather Industry 1.2.7.4 Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries 1.2.7.5 Proteases from Endophytic Fungi and Their Applications 1.2.8 Chitinases 1.2.9 Tyrosinases 1.2.10 Phosphatases 1.2.11 Antioxidant Compounds from Endophytic Chaetomium 1.3 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: Biodiversity, Interaction with Plants, and Potential Applications 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biodiversity of AM Fungi 2.2.1 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Alpine and Temperate Region 2.2.2 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Tropical Region 2.2.3 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Desert 2.2.4 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Mangrove 2.2.5 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in HM-Contaminated Soils and Mining Fields 2.2.6 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Acidic Soils 2.2.7 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Alkaline Soils 2.2.8 Biodiversity of AM Fungi in Saline Soil 2.3 Interaction Between AM Fungi and Plants 2.3.1 Pre-symbiotic Phase 2.3.2 Symbiotic Phase 2.3.3 Arbuscules: The Symbiotic Interface 2.3.3.1 Transporter for Phosphorus (Pi) 2.3.3.2 Transporter for Nitrogen (NH4+) 2.3.3.3 Transporter for Sulfate 2.3.3.4 Transporter for Heavy Metals (HMs) 2.3.3.5 Transporter for Carbon 2.3.4 Common Mycorrhizal Network (CMN) 2.4 Application of AM Fungi 2.4.1 Application of AM Fungi Alleviates Water Stress in Plants 2.4.2 Application of AM Fungi Alleviates Salt Stress in Plants 2.4.3 Application of AM Fungi Alleviates Cold Stress in Plants 2.4.4 Application of AM Fungi Improves the Phytoremediation of HM-Contaminated Soils 2.4.5 Application of AM Fungi Enhances Sustainable Agriculture Production 2.4.6 Application of AM Fungi Controls the Plant Diseases 2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Aspergillus from Different Habitats and Their Industrial Applications 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biodiversity of Aspergillus from Different Habitats 3.2.1 Soil 3.2.2 Endophytes 3.2.3 Airborne 3.2.4 Pathogenic Aspergillus 3.2.5 Human 3.3 Industrial Applications 3.3.1 Metabolites 3.3.2 Enzymes 3.3.2.1 Lipase 3.3.2.2 Laccases 3.3.2.3 Pectinases 3.3.2.4 Proteases 3.3.3 Organic Acids 3.3.4 Pigments 3.4 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Truffles: Biodiversity, Ecological Significances, and Biotechnological Applications 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Truffle Industry 4.3 Tuber Biodiversity 4.4 Ecological Significance 4.5 Biotechnological Applications 4.5.1 Truffle Farming: First Steps 4.5.2 Spore Inoculation 4.5.3 Inoculating with Mycorrhizal Roots 4.5.4 Inoculation with Pure Cultures 4.5.5 Transformed Strains 4.5.6 Double Cropping 4.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Biodiversity and Industrial Applications of Genus Chaetomium 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Chaetomium Diversity in Different Habitats 5.2.1 Desert 5.2.2 Salterns and Mangrove 5.2.3 Indoor Air 5.2.4 FreshWater 5.2.5 Foods 5.2.6 Polar 5.2.7 On Herbivore Dung 5.2.8 Living Plants, Lichens, and Animals 5.2.9 Human 5.2.10 Decaying Wood 5.3 Enzymes 5.3.1 Cellulase 5.3.2 Polysaccharide Monooxygenase (PMO) 5.3.3 β-1,3-Glucanase 5.3.4 Dextranase 5.3.5 Laccase 5.3.6 l-Methioninase 5.3.7 Other Chaetomium Enzymes 5.3.8 Thermophiles and Thermostable Enzymes of Chaetomium 5.3.8.1 Glucoamylases 5.3.8.2 Cellulases 5.3.8.3 Xylanases 5.3.8.4 Cellobiohydrolase 5.3.8.5 Superoxide Dismutase 5.4 Bioconversion of Lignocellulosic Residues into Single-Cell Protein (SCP) 5.5 Secondary Metabolites and Chaetoglobosins 5.6 Antioxidant Compounds Associated with Different Endophytic Chaetomium 5.6.1 Flavipin 5.6.2 Chaetopyranin 5.6.3 Azaphilone 5.6.4 Hypericin and Emodin 5.6.5 Mollicellins 5.7 Light, Electromagnetic Radiations, and Photostimulation 5.8 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Diversity of Cordyceps from Different Environmental Agroecosystems and Potential Applications 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Phylogenetic Classification 6.3 Biodiversity of Cordyceps 6.4 Host Infection 6.5 Bioactive Constitution and Extraction 6.5.1 Cordycepin 6.5.2 Cordycepic Acid 6.5.3 Adenosine 6.6 Pharmaceutical Applications 6.6.1 Cordyceps Sinensis 6.6.1.1 Antiaging 6.6.1.2 Reparative Properties 6.6.1.3 Anticancer/Antitumor 6.6.1.4 Immune System Stimulatory 6.6.1.5 Antioxidant 6.6.2 C. Militaris 6.6.2.1 Cordycepin 6.6.2.2 Adenosine Derivatives 6.6.2.3 Polysaccharides 6.6.2.4 Sterols and Peptides 6.6.3 C. Ophioglossoides 6.7 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Exploring Fungal Biodiversity of Genus Epicoccum and Their Biotechnological Potential 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Biodiversity of Epicoccum 7.2.1 Air 7.2.2 Soil 7.2.3 Water 7.2.4 Plants and Animals 7.2.5 Human 7.2.6 Building, Monuments, and Rock 7.2.7 Museums 7.3 Biotechnological Potential of Epicoccum 7.3.1 Secondary Metabolites 7.3.1.1 Polyketides 7.3.1.2 Polyketide Nonribosomal Peptide Hybrid 7.3.1.3 Diketopiperazines 7.3.1.4 Epicolactone 7.3.1.5 Diterpene 7.3.2 Pigments 7.3.3 Nanoparticle Production 7.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 8: Molecular Taxonomy, Diversity, and Potential Applications of Genus Fusarium 8.1 Introduction 8.2 General Characteristics of Fusarium 8.3 A Brief History of Taxonomy of Fusarium 8.4 Problems and Limitations of Traditional/Conventional System of Classification 8.4.1 The Anamorph-Teleomorph Confusion 8.4.2 The Formae Speciales and Vegetative Compatibility Groups (VCGs) 8.5 Role of Molecular Tools in Fusarium Systematics 8.5.1 Isozyme Technology 8.5.2 Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) 8.5.3 Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSRs) 8.5.4 Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) 8.5.5 DNA Microarrays 8.5.6 Universally Primed-Polymerase Chain Reaction (UP-PCR) 8.6 The Diversity of Genus Fusarium 8.6.1 Previous Studies Related to Diversity of Fusarium 8.6.2 The Pathogenic and Nonpathogenic Fusarium 8.6.3 The Chemotypes of Fungus 8.7 Applications 8.7.1 Enzyme Production and Applications 8.7.2 Pigments Produced and Their Potential Uses 8.7.3 Promoting Plant Growth 8.8 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Ganoderma: Diversity, Ecological Significances, and Potential Applications in Industry and Allied Sectors 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Biodiversity of Ganoderma 9.3 Ecological Roles of Ganoderma 9.3.1 Decay and Rot 9.3.2 Plant Pathogen 9.3.3 Ethnomycology of Ganoderma Species 9.4 Compounds Isolated from Ganoderma Species 9.5 Industrial Applications of Ganoderma 9.5.1 Mycoremediation 9.5.2 Food and Health Service Industry 9.5.3 Pharmaceutical Industry 9.5.4 Cosmetics Industry 9.5.5 Agricultural Industry 9.6 Applications of Nanotechnology 9.7 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Diversity, Phylogenetic Profiling of Genus Penicillium, and Their Potential Applications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Diversity 10.2.1 Clade 1: Fasciculata 10.2.2 Clade 2: Penicillium 10.2.3 Clade 3: Chrysogena 10.2.4 Clade 4: Osmophila 10.2.5 Clade 5: Roquefortorum 10.2.6 Clade 6: Robsamsonia 10.3 Phylogenetic Profiling of the Genus Penicillium 10.4 Current and Potential Biotechnological Applications 10.4.1 Genome Mining 10.4.2 Gene Cluster Heterologous Expression 10.4.3 Mycoremediation 10.5 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Piriformospora indica: Biodiversity, Ecological Significances, and Biotechnological Applications for Agriculture a... 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biodiversity of Piriformospora 11.3 Ecological Significances of Piriformospora indica 11.4 Biotechnological Applications for Agriculture and Allied Sectors 11.4.1 As Plant Growth Promoter: Strategies for Root Modification 11.4.2 Increased Efficiency of Photosynthesis 11.4.3 Enhance Nutrient Availability and Uptake 11.4.4 Modification of Phytohormonal Activity 11.4.5 As a Biocontrol Agent: Biotic Stress Management 11.4.6 Production of Secondary Metabolites 11.4.7 Activation of Programmed Cell Death 11.4.8 As Substitute for Pesticide and Chemical Fertilizers 11.4.9 Abiotic Stress Management 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Saccharomyces and Their Potential Applications in Food and Food Processing Industries 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Nutrient Capability of Saccharomyces 12.3 Saccharomyces Applications in Food Processing 12.3.1 Saccharomyces: Role in Food Fortification 12.3.2 Saccharomyces: Role in Liquid Food (Beverages) 12.3.2.1 Wine Yeasts 12.3.2.2 Traditional Hot Beverages 12.3.2.3 Beer, Lager, and Ethanolic Products 12.3.2.4 Ciders 12.3.3 Saccharomyces ́ Role in Dairy Products 12.3.4 Saccharomyces ́ Role in Baking Industry Processing 12.3.5 Saccharomyces: Role in Development of Traditional Food Products 12.3.6 Saccharomyces: Role in Meat and Fish Processing 12.4 Saccharomyces: Role as Probiotic 12.5 Genetically Modified Saccharomyces Applications in the Food Industry 12.6 Applications of Saccharomyces in Development of Value-Added Products 12.7 Conclusion and Future Prospective References Chapter 13: Biodiversity of Genus Trichoderma and Their Potential Applications 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Biodiversity of Genus Trichoderma 13.3 Trichoderma spp. as Effective Biocontrol Agents 13.3.1 Mycoparasitism and Enzyme Production 13.3.2 Production of Bioactive Metabolites 13.3.3 Trichoderma spp. Alleviating the Stress Conditions of the Plants 13.3.4 Trichoderma spp. as Plant Growth Promoters 13.3.5 Trichoderma spp. Induce Resistance to the Host Plants 13.3.6 Competition for Nutrients and Space 13.3.7 Trichoderma Ameliorates the Phytotoxic Effects of Metal Ions in the Soil 13.4 Industrial Applications of Trichoderma spp. 13.5 Formulation of Trichoderma spp. 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Role of Fungi in Bioremediation of Soil Contaminated with Persistent Organic Compounds 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Functional Traits of Fungi and Resistance to Contaminants 14.3 Fungal Bioremediation 14.3.1 Bioremediation of Organic Agrochemicals (OACs) by Fungi in the Soil System 14.3.2 Bioremediation Through Fungal Enzymes 14.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives References Chapter 15: Fungal Biopesticides for Agro-Environmental Sustainability 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Historical Perspectives of Fungal Biopesticides 15.3 Fungal Biopesticides: A Green Technology for Plant Health Management 15.4 Mode of Action of Biopesticide 15.4.1 Adhesion 15.4.2 Germination 15.4.3 Appressorium Formation 15.4.4 Penetration 15.4.5 Colonization of the Haemolymph 15.4.6 Extrusion and Sporulation 15.4.7 Production of Toxins 15.5 Mode of Action Against Disease 15.6 Mass Production, Formulations and Delivery System of Fungal Biopesticide 15.7 Formulations of Biopesticides 15.7.1 Wettable Powder Formulations 15.7.2 Liquid Substrate 15.7.3 Liquid Media-Based Formulation 15.7.4 Granular Formulation 15.7.5 Tablet Formulation 15.7.6 Oil-Based Formulation 15.7.7 Newer Formulations (Microencapsulation) 15.8 Delivery System of Fungal Biopesticides 15.8.1 Soil Applications 15.8.2 Foliar Spray 15.9 Advantages of Fungal Biopesticides 15.10 Future Prospects 15.11 Constraints 15.12 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Role of Fungi in Bioremediation of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Heavy Metals: Environmental Threats 16.3 Remediation Techniques of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals 16.3.1 Engineering Remediation 16.3.2 Bioremediation 16.3.2.1 Mycoremediation of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals 16.3.2.2 Mechanisms of Mycoremediation 16.3.2.3 Extracellular Metal Sorption and Precipitation in Fungi 16.3.2.4 Intracellular Detoxification Mechanisms 16.3.3 Integrated Remediation Processes 16.3.4 Fungal Phytoremediation 16.4 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Biodiversity and Biotechnological Applications of Industrially Important Fungi: Current Research and Future Prospe... 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Biodiversity of Industrially Important Fungi 17.3 Role of Industrially Important Fungi 17.3.1 Phytostimulation 17.3.1.1 Auxins 17.3.1.2 Cytokinins 17.3.1.3 Abscisic Acid 17.3.1.4 Gibberellic Acid 17.3.1.5 Ethylene 17.3.1.6 Salicylic Acid 17.3.2 Pigment Production 17.3.3 Bioactive Compounds 17.3.4 Enzymes 17.3.4.1 Amylases 17.3.4.2 Glucose Oxidase 17.3.4.3 Lipases 17.3.4.4 Pectinases 17.3.4.5 Cellulases 17.3.4.6 Lactase 17.3.5 Bioremediation 17.3.6 Production of Volatile Organic Compounds 17.3.7 Biofertilizers 17.3.8 Plant Growth-Promoting Fungi as Biocontrol Agents 17.3.8.1 Siderophore Production 17.3.8.2 Production of Antibiotics 17.3.8.3 Chitinase Production 17.3.8.4 Induced Systemic Resistance 17.4 Biotechnological Applications of Fungi 17.4.1 Industries 17.4.2 Agriculture 17.4.3 Environment 17.5 Conclusion References Index Fungi are an understudied, biotechnologically valuable group of organisms. Due to their immense range of habitats, and the consequent need to compete against a diverse array of other fungi, bacteria, and animals, fungi have developed numerous survival mechanisms. However, besides their major basic positive role in the cycling of minerals, organic matter and mobilizing insoluble nutrients, fungi have other beneficial impacts: they are considered good sources of food and active agents for a number of industrial processes involving fermentation mechanisms as in the bread, wine and beer industry. A number of fungi also produce biologically important metabolites such as enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics and several products of important pharmaceutical use; still others are involved in the production of single cell proteins. The economic value of these marked positive activities has been estimated as approximating to trillions of US dollars. The unique attributes of fungi thus herald great promise for their application in biotechnology and industry. Since ancient Egyptians mentioned in their medical prescriptions how they can use green molds in curing wounds as the obvious historical uses of penicillin, fungi can be grown with relative ease, making production at scale viable. The search for fungal biodiversity, and the construction of a living fungi collection, both have incredible economic potential in locating organisms with novel industrial uses that will lead to novel products. Fungi have provided the world with penicillin, lovastatin, and other globally significant medicines, and they remain an untapped resource with enormous industrial potential. Volume 1 of Industrially Important Fungi for Sustainable Development provides an overview to understanding fungal diversity from diverse habitats and their industrial application for future sustainability. It encompasses current advanced knowledge of fungal communities and their potential biotechnological applications in industry and allied sectors. The book will be useful to scientists, researchers, and students of microbiology, biotechnology, agriculture, molecular biology, and environmental biology.