Human Trafficking: A Global Health Emergency : Perspectives From Nursing, Criminal Justice, and the Social Sciences

This book presents various forms of human trafficking, a growing trend in the exploitation of large numbers of people with concurrent public health, socio-cultural, and economic costs to countries burdened with the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. Edited by psychiatric-mental health nurses and an applied anthropologist, this volume covers all forms of human trafficking: sex trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, baby trafficking, organ trafficking, child marriage, and child soldiers with a global public health and policy focus. As such, it fills a gap in human trafficking knowledge and is built on courses springing up around the United States in multiple disciplines. Medical, mental health, and social work interventions are included as well as information about programs with documented outcomes. Each chapter includes state of the art of knowledge with case studies illustrating specific focal ideas, discussion, questions and exercises in order to help readers retain and reinforce chapter material. This textbook will be useful in the disciplines of nursing, medicine, public health, social work, and policy making, as well as in disciplines in which human trafficking is a current interest, such as law, criminal justice, and education. Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents List of Tables Contributors Part I: Background and Significance The Nature and Extent of Human Trafficking 1 Introduction 2 Definition of Human Trafficking 2.1 Palermo Protocol 3 Scope of Human Trafficking 4 Types of Human Trafficking 4.1 Sex Trafficking 4.1.1 Case Example 4.2 Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking (DMST) 4.2.1 DMST 4.2.2 Case Example 4.3 Sex Tourism 4.3.1 Sex Tourism 4.3.2 Case Example 5 Forced Labor 5.1 Forced Labor 5.2 Case Example 6 Organ Trafficking 6.1 Organ Trafficking 6.2 Case Example 7 Nonconsensual (Forced) Marriage 7.1 Children 7.2 Case Example 7.3 Adults 7.4 Case Example 8 Child Soldiers 8.1 Child Soldiers 8.2 Case Example 9 Black-Market Adoptions 9.1 Baby Trafficking 9.2 Case Example 10 Resources 10.1 Films 10.2 Policies 10.3 Syllabus 10.4 Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women 10.5 Human Trafficking Grants 10.6 Reintegration of Child Soldiers 10.7 Shelters for Sex Trafficking Survivors 11 Special Considerations 12 Summary References A Cauldron of Tears: Cultural Factors and Vulnerability in Human Trafficking 1 Introduction 2 Individual Sphere 3 Relationship Sphere 4 Community Sphere 5 Societal Sphere 5.1 Religion 5.2 Gender 5.3 Caste 6 Culturally Competent Care 7 Summary References Violence Against Women and Girls as a Systemic Global Problem 1 Introduction 2 Gender-Based and Intimate Partner Violence 3 Global Examples of Violence 4 Treatment of Women Throughout History 5 Specific Examples of Violence 5.1 Stalking 5.2 Forced Marriage 5.3 Honor Killings 5.4 Female Genital Mutilation 5.5 Human Trafficking 6 Policies and Laws 7 Discussion 8 Conclusion References Further Reading Analyzing the Social Cost of Human Trafficking: An Economic Framework 1 Economic Perspective on Human Trafficking 1.1 Clarifying Human Trafficking in a Market Context—Coercion, Deception, and Force 1.2 Opportunity Cost, Harms, and Social Cost 1.3 Production from Trafficked Labor 2 A Cost Accounting Framework for Human Trafficking 2.1 Harms and Ameliorative Expenditures 2.2 Resources Used by Human Traffickers and in Anti-trafficking Efforts 2.3 Injustice as a Social Cost 2.4 Summing Up 3 Harms Resulting from Human Trafficking—CV 3.1 Harms to Individuals—CL, CS, and CA 3.2 Harms to Families and Communities—CF 4 Costs of Trafficking Efforts and Anti-trafficking Interventions 4.1 Estimating Value of Resources Used by Human Traffickers—CT 4.2 Estimating Value of Resources Used in Intervention and Anti-trafficking Advocacy—CE 5 Summarizing the Social Accounts of Human Trafficking 6 Summary References The Current Landscape of Human Trafficking Law 1 Introduction 2 Content 2.1 Three Branches on Two Levels 3 Anglo Law Inheritance 4 Constitutional Background 5 Legislation/Statutes 5.1 Federal Law 5.2 Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA) 5.3 State Laws 5.4 Attempts at Uniform State Human Trafficking Laws 6 Enforcement Through Federal Administrative Agencies 7 Judicial Approaches 7.1 Interpretation 7.2 Sentencing 8 International Efforts 9 Conclusion References Part II: Types Is There Trafficking in Your Neighborhood? 1 Introduction and Background 2 Profile of the Person Who Is Trafficked 3 Trafficking of Young People 4 Behavior of Traffickers 5 Health Status of People Who Are Trafficked 6 Summary References Family-Facilitated Child Sex Trafficking in India: A Nexus of Caste, Structural Vulnerabilities, and Desperation 1 Introduction 2 Defining Sex Trafficking for Use in a Global Context 3 Family-Facilitated Child Sex Trafficking 4 Structural Vulnerabilities 5 Caste and Structural Vulnerability 6 Family-Facilitated Child Sex Trafficking in India 6.1 High-Risk Environments and FFCST 6.2 Caste-Based and Intergenerational Family-Facilitated Child Sex Trafficking 6.3 Similarities Across the Three Manifestations 6.4 Differences Across the Three Manifestations 7 Summary References Sex Trafficking in Hawaiʻi 1 Introduction 2 Content 2.1 Unique Factors in Hawaiʻi That Facilitate Sex Trafficking 2.2 Studying Sex Trafficking-Demand 2.3 Studying Sex Trafficking—Interviews 2.4 Studying Sex Trafficking—Survey 2.5 Studying Sex Trafficking—Homeless Adults 3 Conclusion References Working with Human Trafficking Survivors 1 Introduction 2 Processes and Approaches 2.1 Approach to Working with Human Trafficking Survivors 2.2 Case Management Work with Human Trafficking Survivors 2.3 Phase 1: Engaging Survivors 2.4 Phase 2: Assessment 2.5 Phase 3: Intervention 2.6 Movement Toward Recovery 2.6.1 Victim 2.6.2 Survivor 2.6.3 Thriver 2.7 Phase 4: Monitoring and Evaluation 2.8 Phase 5: Gradual Disengagement 3 Conclusion References Human Trafficking in the Mediterranean 1 Introduction 2 Journeys Through West Africa, the East and Horn of Africa, and North Africa 3 Risks During the Journey 3.1 Deaths 3.2 Sexual and Gender-Based Violence 3.3 Trafficking, Severe Physical Abuse, and Kidnap for Ransom 3.4 Risks in Detention 3.5 Other Risks 4 Human Trafficking in Italy: How Does It Happen? 4.1 Modern Slaveries: From Labor Exploitation to Child Trafficking 4.2 Human Trafficking in Italy and Irregular Migration 4.3 “Caporalato” as a Form of Labor Exploitation 5 Traffic Profile of the Human Trafficking in Italy 6 Protection 7 Prevention References Understanding Re-Trafficking in the United States: Why Do We Have a Revolving Door? 1 Introduction 2 Content 2.1 Definition of Re-Trafficking 2.2 How Do We Know that Re-Trafficking Is Happening 2.3 Case Study on Re-Trafficking in the United States 2.4 Why Does Re-Trafficking Take Place? 2.4.1 Trafficking as a Business 2.4.2 Constraints Faced by Individual Survivors 2.4.3 Economic, Legal, and Cultural Factors Reflecting Larger Institutional Systems 2.5 Economic and Social Costs of Re-Trafficking 2.6 Why We Don’t Know “What Works” for Survivors 2.7 Recommendations to Counter re-Trafficking 2.7.1 Prevention of Re-Trafficking 2.7.2 Protection of Survivors from Re-Trafficking 2.7.3 Prosecution of Minors Involved in Commercial Sex Acts Should Not Happen 3 Conclusion References Forced Labor: Promises Made, Promises Broken 1 Introduction 2 Content 2.1 Defining Labor Trafficking 2.2 Domestic Labor Trafficking 2.3 Domestic Laws and Regulations 2.4 International Labor Trafficking 2.5 Child Labor Trafficking 3 Labor Trafficking Major Industries 3.1 Agriculture 3.2 Hospitality 3.3 Case Study: Labor Trafficking & Hospitality 3.4 Domestic Work 3.5 Construction, Manufacturing, and Factories 3.6 Other Industries 4 Victims of Labor Trafficking 4.1 Demographics [1] 4.2 Effects of Trafficking on Victims 5 Traffickers 6 Solutions/Responses to Labor Trafficking 7 Summary References Human Trafficking in the Philippines: The Plight of Forced Labor 1 Introduction 2 Types of Forced Labor in the Philippines 2.1 Sex Tourism and Sex Trafficking 2.2 Exploitation of Children 2.3 Exploitation of Women 2.4 Exploitation of Migrant Workers 2.4.1 Maritime Workers 2.4.2 Construction Workers 2.4.3 Healthcare Workers 2.4.4 Domestic Workers 2.4.5 Hospitality-Related Workers 2.5 How Covid Affected Forced Labor in the Philippines 3 Conclusion References Global Health Disparities and Trafficking of Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal 1 Introduction 2 Health Disparities in an Unequal World 3 Health Disparities in Kidney Disease and Transplantation Programs 4 Wealth Disparities and Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Removal of Human Organs 5 Gender Disparities in Organ Transplantation and Organ Trafficking 6 Ethnicity and Health Disparities in Organ Donation, Transplantation, and Trafficking 7 The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Trafficking of Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal 8 Conclusion References Nonconsensual Marriage 1 Introduction 2 Overview 2.1 Basic Definitions 2.2 Types of Nonconsensual Marriage 3 Nonconsensual Marriage and Human Trafficking 4 Child Marriage 4.1 Child Marriage as Slavery 4.2 Child Marriage by Abduction 4.3 Child Marriage by Widows’ Inheritance 4.4 Child Marriage in the United States 5 Impacts of COVID-19 6 Conclusion References The Forced Marriage of Young Girls to Child Soldiers 1 Post-Conflict Gender Justice and Forced Marriage 2 Resolution 1325 and the Special Court for Sierra Leone 3 Jurisprudence Evidence of Criminalizing Violence Against Women 4 The Evidence Behind Forced Marriage 5 The Origin of Child Soldiers: A Social Phenomenon 6 Being a Child Soldier 7 IHL and Youth in Armed Conflicts 8 Culture of Peace and Conflict Resolution: The Best Choice of Weapon 9 Conclusion References Trans Trafficking and Sex Work in Brazil, Costa Rica, and the USA 1 Introduction 2 Content 2.1 Who Do Traffickers Target in Their Attempts to Recruit? 2.2 Global Trans Sex Trade 2.3 Global Organized Crime Networks 2.4 Coerced Sex Work Versus Free Choice 2.5 Terminology 2.6 Trans-Stigma 2.7 Trans Teens 2.8 Trans Trafficking Specific Research 2.9 The Trans Tipping Point 2.10 The Concept of Travesti in Latin America 2.11 Trafficking of Travesti and Those Within the Trans Spectrum in Latin America 2.12 Obstacles for Travesti and Trans Women in Latin America 2.13 Trans Trafficking in Brazil and Costa Rica in Context 2.14 Trans and Travesti Resistance 2.15 Conservative Political Movements and Ideology in the Americas 2.16 Brazil and the Situational Status of Trans-Human Trafficking 2.17 Costa Rica and the Situational Status of Trans-Human Trafficking 2.18 The USA and the Situational Status of Trans-Human Trafficking 2.19 A Path Moving Forward 3 Conclusion 3.1 Final Considerations References Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking 1 Introduction 2 Terminology 3 Demographics 4 Cases 4.1 Cassie 4.2 Billie 5 Risk Factors 6 Recruitment 7 Markets/Trading 8 Outcomes 9 Identifying Sex Trafficking Victims in a Medical Setting 10 Treatment 10.1 Mental Health 10.2 Physical Health 10.3 Spiritual Health 11 Legal Resources References Part III: Clinical Interventions Human Trafficking and the LGBTQ+ Community 1 Introduction 2 Statistics/Scope of the Problem 3 Social Determinants of Health 4 Breaking Barriers and Operationalizing Interventions for Practice 5 Conclusion References Everlasting Pain: The Long-Term Effects of Physical and Emotional Abuse 1 Introduction 2 Long-Term Effects of Physical and Emotional Abuse 2.1 Physical Abuse 2.1.1 Long-Term Physical Effects of Physical Abuse 2.1.2 Long-Term Psychological Effects of Physical Abuse 2.1.3 Recovering from Physical Abuse 2.2 Emotional Abuse 2.2.1 Long-Term Effects of Emotional Abuse 2.2.2 Effects of Childhood Emotional Abuse 2.2.3 Recovering from Emotional Abuse 3 Summary References Human Trafficking and the Trauma-Informed Physical Exam 1 Trauma Definitions 2 Trauma Statistics 3 Effects of Trauma 4 Trauma Is Treatable 4.1 Prevention and Growing Resilience 4.2 Trauma-Hyphenated Terms 5 Case Study 6 Trauma-Informed Clinical Encounters 7 Case Conclusion 8 Conclusions and Future Directions References Reproductive Health Care for Trafficked Women Traversing South of America 1 Impact of Human Trafficking 1.1 Impact on Families 1.2 Impact on Children 2 Professional Roles in Human Trafficking 2.1 Ethical Considerations 2.2 Justice Considerations 2.3 Moral Considerations 2.4 Legal Considerations 3 Characteristics of Trafficked Women 4 Clinical Implications of Trafficking 5 Obstetric Services 5.1 Prenatal care 5.2 Postpartum Care 5.3 Breastfeeding 6 Gynecological Services 6.1 Urinary Tract Infections 6.2 Vaginal Injury and Trauma 6.3 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 7 Hormonal and Non-hormonal Contraception 7.1 Oral Contraceptive Pills 7.2 Contraceptive Patches and Rings 7.3 Progestin Injections 7.4 Long-Acting Reversible Contraception 7.5 Subdermal Implant Contraceptives 7.6 Non-hormonal Methods 8 Chronic Conditions 9 Summary References Sex Trafficking in India 1 Introduction 2 Forms of Trafficking 3 India in Relation to International Trafficking Standards 4 Statistics of Sex Trafficking in India 5 Risk Factors for Sex Trafficking 6 Mental Profile of Sex Trafficking Perpetrators 7 Red-Light Areas of India 8 Indian Laws Related to Sex Trafficking 9 Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sex Trafficking 10 India: A Market for Sex Trafficking of Non-Indian (Foreign) Children and Women 11 Technology and Sex Trafficking in India 12 Corruption Within the Law Enforcement and Sex Trafficking 13 Trauma Experienced by the Sex Trafficking Victims 14 Rehabilitation of Sex Trafficking Victims 15 Sex Trafficking Preventions Efforts 16 International Collaboration to Address Sex Trafficking in India 17 Summary References When Monsters Are Real: Counteracting Malignant Systems 1 Introduction: This Is Not Make Believe 2 Trafficking and Psychopathy 2.1 What Is a Psychopath? 2.2 It’s a Brain Thing 3 Captured by Malignant Systems 3.1 Betrayal Trauma 3.2 Moral Injury 3.3 Institutional Betrayal Trauma, Neoliberalism, and Patriarchy 3.4 Trying to Get Out of “The Life” 4 Counteracting Evil: Moral Development in Humans 4.1 Hunter-Gatherer Heritage 4.2 Need for a Healthy Nest 4.3 Moral Emotions 4.4 Moral Intelligence and Human 5 Creating Presence: Counteracting Malignant Systems 5.1 Complex PTSD and Trauma Bonding 5.2 Restoration of Moral Integrity 5.3 The Impact on the Helper 5.4 Creating a Moral Climate? 5.5 The Importance of Alignment 5.6 The Challenge of Complexity 5.7 Collective Purpose 5.8 Guiding Values and the P.R.E.S.E.N.C.E. Acronym 5.8.1 Partnership and Power 5.8.2 Reverence and Restoration 5.8.3 Emotional Wisdom and Empathy 5.8.4 Safety and Social Responsibility 5.8.5 Embodiment and Enactment 5.8.6 Nature and Nurture 5.8.7 Culture and Complexity 5.8.8 Emergence and Evolution References Part IV: Regional Resources, Programs, and Policies North American Policy on Trafficking of Humans 1 Introduction 2 North American Policy 3 United States Policy 3.1 US Healthcare and Nursing Policy 4 Supply Chain Labor Policy 4.1 Transportation and Trucking Sectors 5 Child Welfare Policy in TIP Victims 6 COVID-19 and TIP 7 Strengths and Challenges in TIP Policy 7.1 Strengths 7.2 Challenges 8 Conclusion References Determinants of Child Trafficking in West Africa: An Issue of Social Justice 1 Introduction 2 West Africa Region 2.1 West Africa and the Problem of Child Trafficking 2.2 Forms of Child Trafficking in West Africa 3 Cultural and Religious Practices That Contribute to Child Trafficking 3.1 Child Fostering 3.1.1 Exemplary Case 3.2 Child Labor as Work Socialization 3.3 Forced Child Marriage 3.3.1 Exemplary Case 3.4 Religious Beliefs: Oath-Taking, Trokosi Practices, and the Almajiri System 3.4.1 Oath-Taking Practices 3.4.2 Exemplary Case Trokosi 3.4.3 Exemplary Case Almajiranci System and Forced/Exploitative Begging 3.4.4 Exemplary Case 4 Political Determinants of Child Trafficking in West Africa 4.1 Failure to Enforce Anti-trafficking Laws 4.2 Civil Unrest, Armed Conflicts 4.3 Corruption 5 Ending Child Trafficking Through Justice in State-Society Relations 6 Summary References Part V: Research State of the Art of Research on Human Trafficking 1 Sex Trafficking 2 Forced Labor 3 Organ Trafficking 4 Child Marriage 5 Child Soldiers 6 Infant Trafficking 7 Summary References Building Evidence in Mixed-Race Vulnerabilities 1 Introduction 2 Terminology 3 History 4 A Struggle for Identity: The Mixed-Race Experience 4.1 Summation 5 The Struggle for Identity While Dealing with the Echoes of Anger, Guilt, and Shame 6 Review of Literature 7 Building a Bridge 8 Positive Possibilities and Future Change 9 Understanding the Implications 10 Call for Evidence and Empirical Knowledge 11 Meeting the Challenges of Healthy People 2030 12 Healing the Past 13 Healing Our Future 14 Taking Action Now 15 A Healthy Future for All 16 Acting Toward a Healthier Future 17 Implication for Practice 18 Conclusion References The Case for Qualitative Designs in Human Trafficking Research 1 Introduction 2 Overview of Qualitative Research 3 Rigor 4 Brief Descriptions of Designs and Methods 4.1 Phenomenology 4.2 Ethnography/Life History 4.3 Oral History/Biography 4.4 Grounded Theory 4.5 Case Study 4.6 Participatory Action Research 4.7 Qualitative Research 5 Data Collection 6 Summary References Appendix A: Films on Human Trafficking Appendix B: Human Trafficking Policy Templates and Protocols Appendix C: Sample Syllabus Sample Syllabus Course Description Course Objectives Text and Readings Bibliography Course Requirements Role of Faculty Role of Student Seminar Attendance and Participation Grading Criteria Grading Scale Topical Outline Seminar 1: Nature and Extent of Human Trafficking Seminar 2 Seminars 3 and 4 Seminar 5 Seminar 6 Seminar 7 and 8 Seminars 9 and 10: Objectives-Student Presentations Guidelines Seminar on Cultural Aspects of Human Trafficking (40 pts) Fieldwork (Choose One of the Following Options) Fieldwork Option 1: Case Study (40 pts) Fieldwork Option 2: Film Critique (40 pts) Appendix D: Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Appendix E: Human Trafficking Grants Appendix F: Reintegration of Child Soldiers North America International Appendix G: Shelters for Sex Trafficking Survivors North America International