History of Toxicology and Environmental Health : Toxicology in Antiquity Volume I

Toxicology in Antiquity is the first in a series of short format works covering key accomplishments, scientists, and events in the broad field of toxicology, including environmental health and chemical safety. This first volume sets the tone for the series and starts at the very beginning, historically speaking, with a look at toxicology in ancient times. The book explains that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe substances from hazardous ones, how to avoid these hazardous substances, and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. It also describes scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents. Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology Illustrates the ways ancient civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies Details scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents Front Cover Toxicology in Antiquity Copyright Page Dedication Contents List of Contributors Foreword References Preface to the Series and Volumes 1 and 2 Preface 1 The Prehistory of Poison Arrows 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What do Historical and Ethnographic Documents Tell Us? 1.3 What is the Current State of Research? 1.4 Conclusions References Further Reading 2 Beetle and Plant Arrow Poisons of the San People of Southern Africa 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Materials and Methods 2.3 Results 2.3.1 History and Development 2.3.2 The San Bow and Arrow Hunting Kit 2.3.3 San Arrow Poisons 2.3.4 Plant-Based Poisons 2.3.5 Minor Plant-Based Poisons 2.3.6 San Animal-Based Arrow Poisons 2.3.7 Arthropod-Based Poisons 2.3.7.1 Minor Animal-Based Poisons 2.4 Discussion 2.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Further Reading 3 Toxicology in Ancient Egypt 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Snakes as Described in the Brooklyn Papyrus 3.2.1 Snake Identification 3.2.2 Symptoms of Snakebite 3.2.3 Prognosis 3.2.4 Treatment 3.3 Scorpions 3.4 Tetanus 3.5 Plant and Mineral Toxins References 4 The Death of Cleopatra: Suicide by Snakebite or Poisoned by Her Enemies? 4.1 Cleopatra’s Ancestry and Historical Background of the Era 4.2 Cleopatra’s Reign. Her Downfall and Her Death 4.3 Epilogue References 5 Kohl Use in Antiquity: Effects on the Eye 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Protective Effect Against UV Radiation 5.3 Antimicrobial Action and Biomedical Importance References 6 Nicander, Thêriaka, and Alexipharmaka: Venoms, Poisons, and Literature 6.1 The Thêriaka 6.2 The Alexipharmaka 6.3 The Nicandrean Question 6.4 Ancient Toxicology 6.5 Venoms, Poisons, and Art Reference 7 The Case Against Socrates and His Execution 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Historical Literature 7.3 Hemlock in Ancient Scientific Literature 7.4 Modern Pharmacological Analysis 7.5 Toward a Renewed Interpretation 7.6 Conclusion References 8 Murder, Execution, and Suicide in Ancient Greece and Rome Further Reading 9 The Oracle at Delphi: The Pythia and the Pneuma, Intoxicating Gas Finds, and Hypotheses References Further Reading 10 Alexander the Great: A Questionable Death 10.1 Alexander’s Last Days 10.2 Modern Theories of Natural Causes 10.3 Modern Theories of Poisoning 10.4 The Styx River Poison Plot References 11 Mithridates of Pontus and His Universal Antidote 11.1 Influences 11.2 Pharmacological and Toxic Riches 11.3 Avoiding Assassination by Poison 11.4 The Secret Antidote 11.5 Mithridatium’s Legacy References 12 Theriaca Magna: The Glorious Cure-All Remedy 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Theriac in Antiquity 12.3 Theriac in the Medieval Period 12.4 Theriac in the Renaissance 12.5 Conclusion References 13 The Gates to Hell in Antiquity and their Relation to Geogenic CO2 Emissions 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Why Enter the Realm of the Shadows? 13.2.1 The Souls of the Mortals 13.2.2 Incubation and Cure 13.2.3 Necromancy 13.2.4 The Gate for Chthonic Gods and Ghosts of the Darkness 13.3 The Geologic Background 13.3.1 Geogenic Gas Emission: Volcanoes, Faults, and Seismicity 13.3.2 Reduced Carbon Gases 13.3.3 Hot Water, Steam, and Geysers 13.3.4 Caves 13.4 The Physicochemical Properties of CO2 13.4.1 Carbon Dioxide is Difficult to Recognize 13.4.2 Carbon Dioxide Forms Gas Lakes 13.4.3 Carbon Dioxide Displaces Atmospheric Oxygen 13.4.4 Carbon Dioxide Forms an Acid 13.5 The Biological, Medical, and Physiological Background 13.6 The Known Sites of the Ancient Gates to Hell 13.6.1 Italy (Magna Graecia) 13.6.1.1 The Phlegrean Fields (Campi Flegrei) 13.6.1.1.1 Lago Averno 13.6.1.1.2 Solfatara and Pisciarelli 13.6.1.2 Bullicame 13.6.1.3 Mefite D’Ansanto 13.6.1.4 Naftia 13.6.1.5 Lago di Pergusa 13.6.1.6 Mount Etna and Stromboli 13.6.2 Greece 13.6.2.1 Eleusis: The Elysian Grotto 13.6.2.2 The Nekromanteion of Acheron-Ephyra 13.6.2.3 Cape Tanairon 13.6.2.4 Ermioni 13.6.2.5 Lake Lerna or the Alcyonian Lake 13.6.3 Turkey: Asia Minor 13.6.3.1 Hierapolis 13.6.3.1.1 The Plutonium in Hierapolis 13.6.3.1.2 The Temple of Apollo in Hierapolis 13.6.3.2 Nysa and Acharaka 13.6.4 Some Modern Gates to Hell 13.7 Gates of Hell—Magna Graecia—Asia Minor—Greece (Hellas)—A Synopsis 13.8 The Historical Relevance Acknowledgments References Further Reading 14 Lead Poisoning and the Downfall of Rome: Reality or Myth? 14.1 The Lead Industry in Ancient Rome 14.1.1 Lead Production 14.1.2 Uses of Lead 14.2 The Effect of Lead on Humans 14.2.1 Metabolic Effect 14.3 Clinical Picture of Lead Toxicity (Retief and Cilliers, 2000) 14.4 Archeological Determination of Lead Toxicity 14.5 Occurrence of Lead Toxicity 14.5.1 Sources of Toxicity 14.5.2 Proof of Lead Poisoning 14.5.2.1 Clinical Picture 14.5.2.2 Archeological Findings (Grandjean, 1978; Retief and Cilliers, 2000) 14.6 Discussion References Further Reading 15 Poisons, Poisoners, and Poisoning in Ancient Rome 15.1 Sources 15.2 Poisons 15.3 Poisons Used 15.4 Incidents of Poisoning During the Roman Republic 15.5 Poisoners and Incidents of Poisoning During the Empire 15.5.1 Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE) 15.5.2 Tiberius (14–37 CE) 15.5.3 Gaius (Caligula) (37–41 CE) 15.5.4 Claudius (41–54 CE) 15.5.5 Nero (54–68 CE) 15.5.6 The Flavian Dynasty (69–96 CE) 15.5.7 Hadrian (117–138 CE) 15.5.8 Commodus (180–192 CE) 15.5.9 Caracalla (211–217 CE) 15.6 Conclusion References 16 Chemical and Biological Warfare in Antiquity 16.1 The Concept of Toxic Weaponry in Greco-Roman and Indian Mythology 16.2 Poisons From Plants in Historical Warfare 16.3 Snake Venom Arrows 16.4 Plague and Contagion 16.5 Poisoning Water Sources and Food Supplies 16.6 Venomous Insects, Snakes, and Scorpions 16.7 Aerosol and Incendiary Weapons 16.8 Practical Issues and Ethical Qualms References 17 Asclepius and the Snake as Toxicological Symbols in Ancient Greece and Rome References 18 Anthropogenic Air Pollution in Ancient Times 18.1 Pollution of the Environment in Ancient Times 18.2 Lead in Ancient Times 18.2.1 Lead Mining and Exploitation 18.2.2 The Utilization of Lead 18.2.3 Illnesses Caused by Lead 18.2.4 Lead Pollution of Ancient Tooth Samples in the United Kingdom 18.2.5 Lead Pollution on Regional and Hemispheric Scales 18.3 Copper in Ancient Times 18.3.1 Copper Mining and Exploitation 18.3.2 Copper Pollution on Regional and Hemispheric Scales 18.4 Environmental Awareness in Ancient Israel Acknowledgments References 19 Poisoning in Ancient Rome: Images and Rules 19.1 Veneficium and Legal Terminology 19.2 Perpetrators, Trials, Stereotypes 19.3 Training for the Courts 19.4 Jurists and the Interpretation of Laws Further Reading 20 “Gleaming and Deadly White”: Toxic Cosmetics in the Roman World 20.1 A Fair Complexion 20.2 Rouge 20.3 Eye Make-Up 20.4 Hair Removers References Further Reading 21 Cherchez la Femme: Three Infamous Poisoners of Ancient Rome 21.1 Stereotypes 21.2 Sources 21.3 Incidents of Poisoning in Which the Three Infamous Women Were Involved: Locusta 21.3.1 The Murder of Claudius 21.3.2 The Poisoning of Britannicus 21.4 Martina 21.5 Canidia 21.6 Identification of Poisons 21.7 A Forensic Investigation 21.8 Conclusion References Further Reading 22 Did Hannibal Really Poison Himself? References 23 Drugs, Suppositories, and Cult Worship in Antiquity 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Drugs and Cults 23.3 Bacchants and Viper Venom 23.4 Ancient Vaginal Suppositories 23.5 Drugs and Sexuality 23.6 Aphrodisiac Suppositories and Magic 23.7 Conclusion References 24 Entheogens in Ancient Times: Wine and the Rituals of Dionysus References 25 Entheogens (Psychedelic Drugs) and the Ancient Mystery Religions 25.1 Pharmacological Roots of Religion 25.2 Hermeneutics and a Definition of Terms 25.3 Toxicology 25.4 Sources, Chemistry, and Effects 25.4.1 Amanita muscaria: “Poison” Apple of the Inner Eye 25.4.2 Ergot Alkaloids: A Grail Quest 25.4.3 Psilocybin and Psilocin (Mushrooms) and DMT, 5Meo DMT: Spirit Molecules 25.4.4 Tropane Alkaloids References Further Reading 26 Ancient Mystery Initiation: Toxic Priestesses and Vaginal Communion 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Toxic Priestesses and their Mystery Rites 26.3 Colleges of Echidnae 26.4 Communal Ios-Rite 26.5 The Science Behind the Ritual 26.6 A Combination of Poisons and Antidotes 26.7 Identifying Drugs Used in the Ios-Rite 26.8 Medea the First Toxic Priestess 26.9 Toxic Plants and Animals Used in Medea’s Ios-Rite 26.10 Medea’s Antidote as Medicine 26.11 Christian Ios Rites 26.12 Toxicological Questions 26.13 Conclusion References 27 Harmful Botanicals 27.1 Classical Toxicology 27.2 Sources and Data 27.3 Analysis 27.3.1 Aim and Scope of Toxicology 27.3.2 Structure and Purpose of Information 27.3.3 Creation of the System 27.3.4 Application of the System 27.3.5 Therapeutic Principle 27.3.6 Period of Creation of the System 27.4 Historical Importance of Ancient Toxicology 27.5 Conclusion References 28 Pearl, An Ancient Antidote of Eastern Origin 28.1 Eastern Cradle 28.2 Organic Origin and Chemical Composition 28.3 Pearls in Indian and Chinese Medicine 28.4 Pearls in Western Medicine 28.5 Pearls and Modern Chemistry 28.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 29 Rhetoric, Demons, and the Poisoner’s Tongue in Judaism and Early Christianity 29.1 The Hebrew Bible 29.2 Knowledge of Venomous Dangers 29.2.1 Spiders and Insects 29.2.1.1 Scorpions 29.2.1.2 Snakes 29.2.1.3 Venom 29.3 Poisonous Plants and Poisonous Water 29.4 Poison and Wormwood 29.5 The New Testament 29.5.1 Common Territory, Common Problems 29.5.2 Jesus, Snakes, and Scorpions 29.5.3 Mark 16, Toxicological Immunity, and Early Church Hagiography 29.5.3.1 The Missing Snake 29.5.3.2 Poison Stories 29.5.4 The Early Church: Contraceptives, Abortifacients, and the Rhetoric of Poisoning 29.5.4.1 Rabbinic Judaism 29.5.4.2 Pharmakeia and Poisoning References Further Reading 30 Poisonous Medicine in Ancient China 30.1 Etymology of Du 30.2 Du in Chinese Pharmacology 30.3 Aconite, the Power to Cure 30.4 Aconite, the Power to Kill 30.5 From Du to Pharmakon References 31 Toxicity of Ayurvedic Medicines and Safety Concerns: Ancient and Modern Perspectives 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Criteria for Incorporation of a Novel and Unknown Substance into the Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia 31.2.1 Namajnanam 31.2.2 Rupajnana 31.2.3 Gunajnana 31.2.4 Yuktijnana 31.2.5 Absolute and Relative Safety of Medicines 31.2.6 Substance Abuse 31.2.7 Evaluating Safety Using Animal Models 31.2.8 Classification of Poisonous Substances from a Point of View of Safety 31.2.8.1 Food Safety 31.2.9 Developing a Protocol for Safe Use of a Drug 31.2.9.1 Ensuring Microbiological Safety of the Raw Materials 31.2.9.2 Checking for Mutagenic Effects of Drugs 31.2.9.3 Checking for Long-Term Toxicity of Drugs 31.2.9.4 Purification of Drugs 31.2.9.5 Herbomineral Preparations 31.2.9.6 Adverse Events 31.2.10 Guidelines for Safe Use of Medicines 31.2.11 Discussion 31.3 Conclusion References 32 The Venomous Virgin: Fact or Fantasy? 32.1 Suśrutasanemies may at 32.2 Secretum Secretorum 32.3 Other Versions 32.4 Conclusion References 33 Mushroom Intoxication in Mesoamerica References Index Back Cover The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology uses a chronological approach to demonstrate how the use of alternative methods has evolved from their conception as adjuncts to traditional animal toxicity tests to replacements for them. This volume in the History of Toxicology and Environmental Health series explores the history of alternative test development, validation, and use, with an emphasis on humanity and good science, in line with the Three Rs (Replacement,Reduction, Refinement) concept expounded by William Russell and Rex Burch in 1959 in their now classic volume, The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. The book describes the historical development of technologies that have influenced the application of alternatives in toxicology and safety testing. These range from single cell monocultures to sophisticated, miniaturised and microfluidic organism-on-a-chip devices, and also include molecular modelling, chemoinformatics and QSAR analysis, and the use of stem cells, tissue engineering and hollow fibre bioreactors. This has been facilitated by the wider availability of human tissues, advances in tissue culture, analytical and diagnostic methods, increases in computational processing, capabilities, and a greater understanding of cell biology and molecular mechanisms of toxicity. These technological developments have enhanced the range and information content of the toxicity endpoints detected, and therefore the relevance of test systems and data interpretation, while new techniques for non-invasive diagnostic imaging and high resolution detection methods have permitted an increased role for human studies. Several key examples of how these technologies are being harnessed to meet 21st century safety assessment challenges are provided, including their deployment in integrated testing schemes in conjunction with kinetic modelling, and in specialized areas, such as inhalation toxicity studies. The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology uses a chronological approach to demonstrate how the use of alternative methods has evolved from their conception as adjuncts to traditional animal toxicity tests to replacements for them. This volume in the History of Toxicology and Environmental Health series explores the history of alternative test development, validation, and use, with an emphasis on humanity and good science, in line with the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) concept expounded by William Russell and Rex Burch in 1959 in their now-classic volume, The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. The book describes the historical development of technologies that have influenced the application of alternatives in toxicology and safety testing. These range from single cell monocultures to sophisticated miniaturised and microfluidic organism-on-a-chip devices, and also include molecular modelling, chemoinformatics and QSAR analysis, and the use of stem cells, tissue engineering and hollow fibre bioreactors. This has been facilitated by the wider availability of human tissues, advances in tissue culture, analytical and diagnostic methods, increases in computational processing capabilities, and a greater understanding of cell biology and molecular mechanisms of toxicity. These technological developments have enhanced the range and information content of the toxicity endpoints detected, and therefore the relevance of test systems and data interpretation, while new techniques for non-invasive diagnostic imaging and high resolution detection methods have permitted an increased role for human studies. Several key examples of how these technologies are being harnessed to meet 21st century safety assessment challenges are provided, including their deployment in integrated testing schemes in conjunction with kinetic modelling, and in specialised areas, such as inhalation toxicity studies. Front Cover -- History of Risk Assessment in Toxicology -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Series Introduction -- 1 Prehistory of Risk Assessment: Origins of Human Tragedies and Concepts of Risk -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Mathematical Development of Risk Concepts -- 1.3 Percivall Pott and Chimney Sweepers -- 1.4 Industrial Smog and Regulatory Responses -- 1.5 The Narrative of the History of Toxicological Risk Assessment -- Further Reading -- 2 Risk Assessment in the 20th Century Part I: Early Lessons in Food and Drug Safety -- Section 2.1 Food Additives and Contaminants -- 2.1.1 Introduction -- 2.1.2 Food Additives -- 2.1.3 Food Contaminants -- 2.1.4 Challenges -- References -- Section 2.2 Microbial Risk Assessment -- References -- Section 2.3 Safety Assessment of Food from Biotechnology-Derived Crops -- References -- 3 History of European and Global Regulation of Risk Assessment -- 3.1 Key Developments in the 1960s -- 3.2 World Health Organization -- 3.3 WHO-IARC -- 3.4 WHO-IPCS -- 3.5 Dangerous Substance Directive -- 3.6 Risk Assessment Under REACH -- 3.7 OECD -- 3.8 Selected Countries and Regions With Various States of Risk Assessment Frameworks -- 3.8.1 Canada -- 3.8.1.1 Health Canada and Environment Canada -- 3.9 Asia Pacific -- 3.9.1 Australia -- 3.9.2 New Zealand -- 3.9.3 India -- 3.9.4 Indonesia -- 3.9.5 China -- 3.9.6 Philippines -- 3.9.7 Vietnam -- 3.9.8 Japan -- 3.9.9 Korea -- 3.9.10 Latin American Countries -- 3.9.11 Brazil -- 3.9.12 Uruguay -- 3.9.13 Mexico -- References -- Further Reading -- 4 The History of Risk Assessment Within OSHA and ACGIH: Asbestos Case Study -- 4.1 The Birth of the Occupational Health and Safety Administration and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health -- 4.2 Regulatory Standards Under OSHA, Following the Asbestos Story History of Risk Assessment in Toxicology guides the reader through the historical narrative of the evolution of risk assessment thinking in human and environmental practices. Risk assessment concepts are used in many different professional practice areas. In the health and environmental practices of risk assessment, the critical issue is often what chemical concentration in air, water, food, or a solid substance is acceptable, or considered not to result in any adverse effect. The book reviews examples from early scientific and health studies to showcase the foundations of risk assessment. The book also explores the development of risk assessment as practiced by major regulatory bodies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA), and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to reveal how risk assessment has evolved in the 20th and 21st centuries. Modern technology has created opportunities in silicon in vitro, computational modeling, omics, and big data techniques to assess the toxicity of chemicals, while traditional approaches to risk assessment are being challenged with new and innovative approaches. Finally, current issues being debated and tested in risk assessment are outlined with possible future avenues suggested. Presents the first dedicated history on the evolution of risk assessment in toxicology Reviews the development of major US and EU regulatory bodies Provides a context to current debates surrounding the future of risk assessment Reviews examples from early scientific and health studies to showcase the foundations of risk assessment Toxicology in Antiquity provides an authoritative and fascinating exploration into the use of toxins and poisons in antiquity. It brings together the two previously published shorter volumes on the topic, as well as adding considerable new information. Part of the History of Toxicology and Environmental Health series, it covers key accomplishments, scientists, and events in the broad field of toxicology, including environmental health and chemical safety. This first volume sets the tone for the series and starts at the very beginning, historically speaking, with a look at toxicology in ancient times. The book explains that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe substances from hazardous ones, how to avoid these hazardous substances, and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. It also describes scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents. New chapters in this edition focus chiefly on evidence for the use of toxic agents derived from religious texts. Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology Illustrates the ways previous civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies Explores the way famous historical figures used toxins New chapters focus on evidence of the use of toxins derived from religious texts This volume, Toxicology in Antiquity II, continues to tell the story of the roots of toxicology in ancient times. Readers learn that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. Toxicologists are particularly proud of the rich and storied history of their field and there are few resources available that cover the discipline from a historical perspective. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid these hazardous substances and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. Volume II explores the use of poison as weapons in war and assassinations, early instances of air pollution, the use of hallucinogens and entheogens, and the role of the snake in ancient toxicology.

• Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology
• Illustrates the ways ancient civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies
• Details scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents

This volume, Toxicology in Antiquity II, continues to tell the story of the roots of toxicology in ancient times. Readers learn that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. Toxicologists are particularly proud of the rich and storied history of their field and there are few resources available that cover the discipline from a historical perspective. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid these hazardous substances and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. Volume II explores the use of poison as weapons in war and assassinations, early instances of air pollution, the use of hallucinogens and entheogens, and the role of the snake in ancient toxicology. Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology Illustrates the ways ancient civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies Details scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents Toxicology in Antiquity is the first in a series of short format works covering key accomplishments, scientists, and events in the broad field of toxicology, including environmental health and chemical safety. This first volume sets the tone for the series and starts at the very beginning, historically speaking, with a look at toxicology in ancient times. The book explains that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe substances from hazardous ones, how to avoid these hazardous substances, and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. It also describes scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents.

• Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology
• Illustrates the ways ancient civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies
• Details scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents

Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance provides an authoritative and fascinating exploration into the use of toxins and poisons in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Part of the History of Toxicology and Environmental Health series, this volume is a follow-up, chronologically, to the first two volumes which explored toxicology in antiquity. The book approximately covers the 1100s through the 1600s, delving into different aspects of toxicology, such as the contributions of scientific scholars of the time, sensational poisoners and poisoning cases, as well as myths. Historical figures, such as the Borgias and Catherine de Medici are discussed. Toxicologists, students, medical researchers, and those interested in the history of science will find insightful and relevant material in this volume. Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology Illustrates the ways previous civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid them, and how to use them against enemies Explores the way famous historical figures used toxins This chapter discusses Jan Baptist Van Helmont's (1579-1644) views on poison in light of his medical alchemy. First, it argues that his approach was fundamentally influenced by the theories of 'universal poison' and 'potent poison' developed by Theophrastus von Hohenheim, called Paracelsus (1493-1541). Paracelsus's ideas supported Van Helmont's own views that medical alchemy was the only key to curing all diseases and poisons. At the same time, Van Helmont sought to set these concepts more clearly in a Christian framework, and also used them to launch a scathing attack on Galenic medicine and practices. Moreover, Van Helmont used poison theory to advance his belief in the existence of a universal solvent Alkahest that could extract medical essences out of any being. The Alkahest could then be used to construct an all-powerful universal medicine that proved God's special providence to mankind Prehistory Of Risk Assessment : Origins Of Human Tragedies And Concepts Of Risk / Sol Bobst -- Risk Assessment In The 20th Century Part I : Early Lessons In Food And Drug Safety / René Viñas, Melinda Hayman, Ai Kataoka And Manojit Basu -- History Of European And Global Regulation Of Risk Assessment / Sol Bobst -- The History Of Risk Assessment Within Osha And Acgih : Asbestos Case Study / Sol Bobst -- Risk Assessment In The 21st Century : New Technologies And Techniques / René Viñas And Ted W. Simon. Edited By Sol Bobst. Includes Bibliographical References. 4.3 Ongoing Challenges With OSHA and ACGIH Regulatory Limits -- Further Reading -- 5 Risk Assessment in the 21st Century: New Technologies and Techniques -- Section 5.1 Big Data: Benefits and Challenges -- References -- Section 5.2 Evidence-Based Toxicology Versus Weight of Evidence in Influencing Risk Assessment: Design and Approach -- References -- Back Cover