History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume II : The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilization 700 B.C to A.D.250 II

Volume II presents an account of various population movements and cultural exchanges in Central Asia between 700 B.C. and 250 A.D. Important nomadic tribal cultures such as the Kushans emerged during this period. Contacts between the Mediterranean and the Indus Valley were reinforced by the campaigns of Alexander the Great and, under his successors, the progressive syncretism between Zoroastrianism, Greek religion and Buddhism gave rise to a new civilization instituted by the Parthians, known for its artistic creations. Under Kushan rule, Central Asia became the crossroads of a prosperous trade between the Mediterranean and China along the Silk Route. PREFACE CONTENTS DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE(in alphabetical order) LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS INTRODUCTION ANCIENT IRANIAN NOMADS IN WESTERN CENTRAL ASIA Literary sources on the ancient Iranian nomads of Central Asia Society and economy of the Iranian nomads of Central Asia Culture of the Iranian nomads of Central Asia MEDIA AND ACHAEMENID IRAN The immigration of the Median and Persian tribes Media The rise of the Persian Empire The pre-Achaemenid states in Central Asia The Achaemenid Empire as a world power The Achaemenid economy Old Persian inscriptions State administration The economy Iranian culture in the Achaemenid period Old Iranian religion ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS IN CENTRAL ASIA ALEXANDER'S CAMPAIGN IN CENTRAL ASIA Alexander's motivation Alexander's main task and its result The murder of Darius The fall of Aria and Arachosia The capture of Bessus Resistance in Bactria and its suppression The conquest of Transoxania Alexander's allies from the Indus region Alexander's route to the Indus The battle with the Aspasians Fight with the Assacenians The capture of Aornos Alexander and Taxila Alexander and Porus Alexander's retreat Alexander fights his way to the South Alexander marches back across Baluchistan Alexander's last days THE SELEUCIDS IN CENTRAL ASIA Alexander's death and its aftermath Mauryas and Central Asia Political Uphavals Urbanization and city life The end of seleucid power in Central Asia THE GREEK KINGDOMS OF CENTRAL ASIA Political history The Indian campaigns The last phase Graeco-Bactrian sites The Greek settlements Greek and the local language: epigraphic documents Towns and urbanization Architecture: the palace at Ay Khanum The originality of Graeco-Bactrian architecture Domestic architecture Religions and religious monuments Local cults and Buddhist influence The figurative arts Everyday implements Trade and trade routes Coinage The Greek heritage in Central Asia PARTHIA Parthia and the Seleucids Mithradates II and his successors The pattern of decline The Romans and the Parthians Successors of Artabanus Later Roman--Parthian relations Socio-economic systems Trade and commerce Parthian coinage The Socio-economic fabric The king and his council Administration The fiscal system Parthianculture NOMADS IN EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA Early Mongolia The Hsiung-nu Empire The Hsien-pi state The economy, social structure and state organization of the Hsiung-nu Hsiung-nu burials and the finds from Noin-Ula Hsiung-nu customs, religion and culture Hsien-pi culture THE YÜEH-CHIH AND THEIR MIGRATIONS The Yüeh-chih in Gansu The Yüeh-chih and the Scythians The Yüeh-chih Empire The Yüeh-chih and Pazîrîk The Yüeh-chih and the Detached Scythians The Yüeh-chih conquest of Bactria The nomads and Parthia Archaeological remains of the nomads in northern Bactria The `dark ages' THE SAKAS AND INDO-PARTHIANS The Sakas in India The Pahlavas in India The administrative system of the Sakas and Pahlavas Philhellenism The monetary system and coinage Architecture and art Religious developments THE CULTURE OF THE XINJIANG REGION The Xinjiang region The Xiangbaobao graves, Tashkurgan The Lou-lan graves at Lop Nor The pebble graves of Alagou (Turfan County) The wooden chamber graves at Alagou (Turfan County) The T'ien Shan settlements Grave sites on the slopes of the Altai mountains THE WESTERN REGIONS UNDER THE HSIUNG-NU AND THE HAN The triangular clash China and the Western Regions The economy of the oasis states Language, culture and religion Chinese administration Military and agricultural colonies The Silk Route THE KUSHANS The Early Kushans The date of Kanishka The Great Kushans Relations with Iran Relations with China Relations with Rome Relations with north-eastern India Relations with the Saka satraps The Kushan political system Kushan administration ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SYSTEM IN CENTRAL ASIA IN THE KUSHAN AGE Irrigation Crop-raising and livestock-breeding Handicrafts and building The coinage and monetary system Trade and commerce The Silk Route Social structure Land-ownership CITIES AND URBAN LIFE IN THE KUSHAN KINGDOM The development of urban patterns City life in the Kushan period City planning Royal palaces and community walls Bazaars and dwelling-houses City administration Craftsmen and guilds Trade and commerce RELIGIONS IN THE KUSHAN EMPIRE Religious life in Bactria before the Kushan conquest The ancient religion of the Sakas and Kushans The epoch of the Kushan yabghus Religious life under Vima Kadphises The religious policy of Kanishka I Religious life under the `triple' kingship New trends in the second phase of Huvishka Syncretism and absorption KUSHAN ART Kushan art in the north Kushan art in Bactria Kushan art in Nagarahara and Arachosia Kushan art of Gandhara Kushan art in Mathura LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS IN GRAECO-BACTRIA AND THE SAKA KINGDOMS Old Persian, Imperial Aramaic, Old Bactrian The survival of Aramaic The language of ancient Bactria Greek language and script in Central Asia The language of the Southern Sakas LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE IN THE KUSHAN EMPIRE An unknown language in an unknown script The Bactrian language in Greek script Sanskrit and Prakrit Sogdian STATES IN NORTH-WESTERN CENTRAL ASIA The transition to sedentary culture Ethnic history Irrigation and agriculture Mining and manufacture The development of cities and urbanization Development in Ferghana Subsequent developments THE NOMADS OF NORTHERN CENTRAL ASIA AFTER THE INVANSION OF ALEXANDER Transoxania The Wu-sun The K'ang-chü The Yen-ts'ai, Aorsi and Siraci The Alans The Hsiung-nu (Hunni, Huns) The Yüeh-pan Later history THE RISE OF SASANIAN IRAN The decline of Parthia The new Sasanian dynasty The campaigns of Shapur I Kushanshahr Margiana Bactria and the Silk Route CONCLUSION MAPS BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES INDEX History of civilizations of Central Asia