History of Civilizations of Central Asia - Vol. 5: Development in Contrast : from the Sixteeth to the Mid-Nineteenth Century

Burnout is common among doctors in the West, so one might assume that a medical career in Malawi, one of the poorest countries in the world, would place far greater strain on the idealism that drives many doctors. But, as A Heart for the Work makes clear, Malawian medical students learn to confront poverty creatively, experiencing fatigue and frustration but also joy and commitment on their way to becoming physicians. The first ethnography of medical training in the global South, Claire L. Wendland's book is a moving and perceptive look at medicine in a world where the transnational movement of people and ideas creates both devastation and possibility.Wendland, a physician anthropologist, conducted extensive interviews and worked in wards, clinics, and operating theaters alongside the student doctors whose stories she relates. From the relative calm of Malawi's College of Medicine to the turbulence of training at hospitals with gravely ill patients and dramatically inadequate supplies, staff, and technology, Wendland's work reveals the way these young doctors engage the contradictions of their circumstances, shedding new light on debates about the effects of medical training, the impact of traditional healing, and the purposes of medicine. COVER 1 COPYRIGHT 5 PREFACE OF THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF UNESCO 6 CONTENTS 8 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 16 MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE 20 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 22 EDITORS’ NOTE 26 INTRODUCTION 28 1. THE KHANATE (EMIRATE) OF BUKHARA 34 Part One - THE SHAYBANIDS 34 The Kazakhstan steppes and Transoxania in the late fifteenth centur 34 Muhammad Shaybani 35 Abdullah Khan 41 Part Two - THE JANIDS (ASTARKHANIDS) 46 The establishment of Janid (Astarkhanid) power 46 The Bukhara khanate (1611–47) 47 Part Three - THE MANGHITS 54 The rise of the Manghit dynasty 55 The consolidation of the Manghit dynasty 57 The Manghit system of government 61 2. THE KHANATES OF KHIVA AND KOKAND AND TH ERELATIONS BETWEEN THE KHANATES AND WITH OTHER POWERS 64 Part One - THE KHANATE OF KHIVA (KHWARAZM) 64 The sixteenth century 64 The seventeenth century 67 The eighteenth century 69 The nineteenth century 70 Russian intervention and European exploration 71 Part Two - FERGHANA AND THE KHANATE OF KOKAND 72 The fifteenth and sixteenth centurie 72 The eighteenth century 74 The nineteenth century 75 Part Three - RELATIONS BETWEEN THE KHANATES 83 The sixteenth century 83 The seventeenth century 85 The eighteenth century and the rise of Nadir Shah 86 3. THE KAZAKHS 90 Origins of the Kazakhs 90 Formation of the Kazakh khanate 91 The Kazakh hordes (zhuzs) 92 The Kazakh khanate from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century 94 The Dzungar invasion 97 Kazakhstan as a part of Russia; the struggle for independence 99 Herding, farming and urban life 101 Crafts 103 Kazakh military organization and arts 103 Material and spiritual culture 104 4. THE KYRGYZ 110 Diffusion of the Kyrgyz tribes 110 The Tian Shan Kyrgyz 112 Religion and beliefs of the Kyrgyz 113 The Kyrgyz in Transoxania and northern Afghanistan 115 The Kyrgyz in East Turkistan 116 War against the Dzungar khanate 117 The Kyrgyz after the fall of the Dzungar khanate 119 The northern Kyrgyz in the nineteenth century 120 Kyrgyz culture in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 121 The Russian conquest of Kyrgyzstan 124 5. THE TURKMENS 128 Origins and early history 128 The sixteenth century 129 The seventeenth century 134 Social structure 135 The first half of the eighteenth century: Nadir Shah 135 The second half of the eighteenth century 137 The nineteenth century 137 Russian expansion 138 The Turkmen character and way of life 138 6. THE DZUNGARS AND THE TORGUTS (KALMUKS), AND THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN SIBERIA 142 Part One - HISTORY OF THE DZUNGARS: INTRODUCTORY SURVEY 142 Origins of the Oirat confederation 142 The Oirats in the fifteenth and sixteenth centurie 143 The Oirats in the early seventeenth century 144 Khara Khula, the first chief of the Dzungar 145 The Torguts move to the Volga 146 Oirat power under Güüshi Khan of the Khoshots and Ba’atur Khongtaiji of the Dzungars 146 Galdan Boshoghtu, the Dzungar khan 148 Conflict between the orgut chief Ayuki and the Dzungar chief Cewang Arabtan 149 Galdan Cering’s reign and the fall of the Dzungar empire 150 The Torguts’ return to the Ili and subsequent events 151 Part Two - THE DZUNGARS AND THE TORGUTS (KALMUKS) IN CHINA 152 Torgut migrations towards the northern Tian Shan 153 The rise and fall of the Dzungar empire 156 The Torguts’ return from the Volga 160 The socio-economic and cultural development of the Oirats 163 Part Three - THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN SIBERIA IN THE SIXTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 174 The western region of southern Siberia 175 The middle region of southern Siberia 177 The eastern region of southern Siberia 178 7. THE TARIM BASIN 182 The Tarim basin under the Chaghatay khanate 182 The Tarim basin under the Dzungar empire 192 The Tarim basin under the Qing 202 8. THE MONGOLS 210 The Mongol empire and its collapse (late fourteenth to late fifteenth century 210 New state-building in Mongolia and the conversion to Buddhism (late fifteenth to early seventeenth century 212 The Manchu conquest of Mongolia and the anti-Manchu uprisings (seventeenth to mid-eighteenth century) 215 Mongolia and its political status under Qing suzerainty 222 9. THE PAMIRS, BADAKHSHAN AND THE TRANS-PAMIR STATES 226 Part One - THE PAMIRS AND BADAKHSHAN 226 The Pamirs 226 Badakhshan 231 Part Two - THE TRANS-PAMIR STATES 236 Gilgit 237 Nagir and Hunza 240 Chitral 241 The Khushwaqt family of Yasin and Mastuj 242 Baltistan 244 The rajas of Khartaksho, Shigar and Khapalu 246 10. PERSIA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE SAFAVIDS, THE AFSHARS AND THE EARLY QAJARS 248 Part One - THE SAFAVIDS (1501–1722) 248 The birth of an empire and the emergence of present-day Iran 248 Shah Ismacil I (1501–24): the founder of a dynasty based on the Safavid order 249 Shah Tahmasp I (1524–76): the consolidation of the empire 251 A decade of upheavals (1576–87) 254 Shah cAbbas the Great (1587–1629): the rebirth of the empire on a new foundation 255 The long period of decline (1629–1722) 259 Anarchy: the fall of the Safavids and the rule of the Ghilzais and Abdalis (1722–9) 260 Part Two - THE AFSHARS, A SHORT-LIVED MILITARY EMPIRE (1736–47), AND THE ZAND REGIME (1747–94) 262 Nadir Shah (1736–47): the last great Asian conqueror 262 Karim Khan Zand (1750–79): calm after the storm 265 Part Three - THE EARLY QAJARS AT THE THRESHOLD OF THE MODERN WORLD (1795–1848) 266 gha Muhammad Khan Qajar (1795–6): the founder of the dynasty 267 Fath cAli Shah (1796–1834): the last ruler from the Thousand and One Nights 267 Muhammad Shah (1834–48): ailing warrior and mild modernizer 271 11. AFGHANISTAN 274 Towards an Afghan state 274 The formation of the Afghan state 281 The fall of the Safavids and the conquest of Persia 284 The establishment of the Afghan state 286 12. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS 300 Political history 300 The imperial structure 307 The social and economic framework 311 High culture 313 State and religion 314 Decline of the empire (1707–1857) 317 Kashmir, Punjab and Sind under the Mughals and their successors 318 13. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 326 Part One - INTER-STATE RELATIONS (c. 1500–1850) 326 Eastern Central Asia 326 The Mughal Indian empire and the Uzbeks 330 The Safavid empire and the Mughals 332 The nomads and the Transoxanian states 333 Part Two - COLONIALISM AND CENTRAL ASIA 336 The Portuguese Estado da India and Central Asian trade 336 The seventeenth century: the intrusion of the Companies 337 Rise of the British colonial empire 338 Russian expansion 340 14. SOCIETY 344 Part One - SOCIAL STRUCTURE 344 Nomadic societies 344 Sedentary societies 349 Part Two - THE STATUS OF WOMEN 356 Transoxania 356 Iran 361 India 367 15. THE ECONOMY. PRODUCTION AND TRADE 374 Part One - PRODUCTION 374 Northern areas (Transoxania and the steppes) 374 Pastoral production 374 Geographic conditions 374 The nomadic economy 375 Agriculture 377 Handicrafts 380 The organization of handicrafts 381 Individual crafts 383 Small craft industries 393 Southern Central Asia 393 Kashmir 394 The Indus plains 398 The Afghan highlands 401 Sistan and Khurasan 404 Balkh and Badakhshan 406 Part Two - TRADE 408 The pattern of trade 408 The eighteenth century 415 The early nineteenth century 417 The 1820s 419 The English involvement 421 The period 1837–50 422 16. MONETARY SYSTEMS AND PRICES 428 Part One - NORTHERN PARTS OF CENTRAL ASIA: MONETARY POLICY AND CURRENCY CIRCULATION UNDER THE SHAYBANID AND THE JANID (ASTARKHANID) DYNASTIES 428 The monetary reforms of Muhammad Shaybani Khan, 1507–10 428 The currency crisis and the reforms of Kuchkunchi Khan 433 Monetary policy following the reforms of Kuchkunchi Khan 435 The pre-reform situation and the monetary reforms of cAbdullah Khan II in the late seventeenth century 438 Monetary policy and currency circulation under the Janids (Astarkhanids) in the seventeenth century 440 Gold and silver in the eighteenth century. The reforms of 1785 442 Part Two - EASTERN AND NORTHERN CENTRAL ASIA (c. 1750 TO c. 1850) 445 East Turkistan (Xinjiang) 445 Money in the Kokand khanate 446 Money in the Bukhara emirate 447 Money in the Khiva khanate 449 Part Three - THE MONETARY SYSTEM IN SAFAVID PERSIA 452 Part Four - THE MONETARY SYSTEM AND PRICE MOVEMENTS IN INDIA 455 17. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 462 Part One - SCIENCE 462 The space for reason 462 Mathematics and astronomy 465 Medicine 467 Part Two - TECHNOLOGY 468 Irrigation 468 Water and wind power 470 Craft technology 472 Artillery 475 18. ARCHITECTURE 478 Part One - ARCHITECTURE IN TRANSOXANIA AND KHURASAN 478 Urban planning 478 Architectural design and methods 480 Religious architecture 481 Civic architecture 490 Architectural ensembles 494 The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 504 Part Two - THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (NORTH-WESTERN REGIONS) 509 Early trends 509 Monuments in Thatta 512 Indian features 512 Early Mughal architecture 513 Other types of mausoleum 516 Secular buildings 518 The new mosque style 522 The Mughal synthesis of styles 523 Part Three - THE EASTERN REGION OF CENTRAL ASIA 528 Tian Shan Nanlu 528 Tian Shan Beilu 537 Part Four - MONGOL ARCHITECTURE 542 Religious monuments 546 Urban development 552 19. ARTS OF THE BOOK, PAINTING AND CALLIGRAPHY 556 Part One - IRAN AND NORTH-WESTERN CENTRAL ASIA 556 Iran 556 The Safavids (1501–1736) 556 The Afshars (1735–47) and the Zands (1747–94) 579 The Qajars: from Agha Muhammad Khan to Muhammad Shah’s reign (1795–1848) 580 North-western Central Asia 582 The Shaybanids (Bukhara, 1500–98) and the Janids (Astarkhanids) (Bukhara, 1599–1753) 582 Part Two - PAINTING IN MUGHAL INDIA 586 Babur in India (1526–30) and the creation of Mughal India 586 Prince Kamran and Humayun (1530–56) 587 Akbar (1556–1605) and the birth of Mughal painting 588 Jahangir (1605–27) 598 Allegorical portraits and dynastic legitimacy 601 The apogee of Mughal painting under Jahangir and Shah Jahan 603 The last Mughals 607 Part Three - EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA 611 Xinjiang 611 Mongolia 617 20. APPLIED ARTS: METALWORK, CERAMICS AND SCULPTURE 630 Metalwork 630 Copperware and bronze(or brass)ware 631 Steelware 640 Arms 642 Gold and silverware 646 Ceramics 653 Sculpture 657 21. APPLIED ARTS: TEXTILES AND CARPETS 660 Part One - TEXTILE FABRICS OTHER THAN CARPETS 660 Iran 660 India 662 Transoxania 664 Part Two - TEXTILE ARTS IN TRANSOXANIA 667 Sources for study 668 Craft workers and guilds 668 Silk manufacture 669 Cotton manufacture 670 Classification of textiles 670 Conclusion 680 Part Three - CARPETS 681 Khurasan (north-eastern Iran and Afghanistan) 682 Western Turkistan 687 Transoxania 689 East Turkistan (Xinjiang) 693 Mongolia and north-western China 696 Northern India 697 22. LITERATURE IN PERSIAN AND OTHER I NDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES 702 Part One - LITERATURE IN PERSIAN 702 Principal prose works 703 Major poets of Transoxania, Khurasan, Iran and India 708 Lexicography 716 Part Two - LITERATURE IN PASHTO 717 Part Three - LITERATURE IN THE INDIC LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN AND NORTH-WESTERN INDIA 720 Kashmiri 720 Panjabi 721 Sindhi 722 Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi) 722 Appendix - THE LANGUAGES OF AFGHANISTAN 723 23. TURKIC AND MONGOLIAN LITERATURE 730 Part One - TURKIC LITERATURE 730 Chaghatay/Uzbek literature 730 Chaghatay Turki in Xinjiang 734 Kazakh literature 735 Karakalpak (Qara-Qalpaq) literature 735 Kyrgyz literature 736 Turkmen literature 736 Turkic epic poetry 737 Part Two - THE EPIC TRADITION AND HISTORICAL LITERATURE IN TURKIC 739 Part Three - MONGOLIAN LITERATURE 744 Part Four - MONGOLIAN LEXICOGRAPHY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY 753 24. PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC AND COSMOLOGY 760 Introduction 760 Philosophy 761 Mystical philosophy 766 Conclusion 771 MAPS 828 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 842 GLOSSARY 914 INDEX 920 BACK COVER 936 COVER......Page 1 COPYRIGHT......Page 5 PREFACE OF THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF UNESCO......Page 6 CONTENTS......Page 8 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT......Page 16 MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE......Page 20 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS......Page 22 EDITORS’ NOTE......Page 26 INTRODUCTION......Page 28 The Kazakhstan steppes and Transoxania in the late fifteenth centur......Page 34 Muhammad Shaybani......Page 35 Abdullah Khan......Page 41 The establishment of Janid (Astarkhanid) power......Page 46 The Bukhara khanate (1611–47)......Page 47 Part Three - THE MANGHITS......Page 54 The rise of the Manghit dynasty......Page 55 The consolidation of the Manghit dynasty......Page 57 The Manghit system of government......Page 61 The sixteenth century......Page 64 The seventeenth century......Page 67 The eighteenth century......Page 69 The nineteenth century......Page 70 Russian intervention and European exploration......Page 71 The fifteenth and sixteenth centurie......Page 72 The eighteenth century......Page 74 The nineteenth century......Page 75 The sixteenth century......Page 83 The seventeenth century......Page 85 The eighteenth century and the rise of Nadir Shah......Page 86 Origins of the Kazakhs......Page 90 Formation of the Kazakh khanate......Page 91 The Kazakh hordes (zhuzs)......Page 92 The Kazakh khanate from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century......Page 94 The Dzungar invasion......Page 97 Kazakhstan as a part of Russia; the struggle for independence......Page 99 Herding, farming and urban life......Page 101 Kazakh military organization and arts......Page 103 Material and spiritual culture......Page 104 Diffusion of the Kyrgyz tribes......Page 110 The Tian Shan Kyrgyz......Page 112 Religion and beliefs of the Kyrgyz......Page 113 The Kyrgyz in Transoxania and northern Afghanistan......Page 115 The Kyrgyz in East Turkistan......Page 116 War against the Dzungar khanate......Page 117 The Kyrgyz after the fall of the Dzungar khanate......Page 119 The northern Kyrgyz in the nineteenth century......Page 120 Kyrgyz culture in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries......Page 121 The Russian conquest of Kyrgyzstan......Page 124 Origins and early history......Page 128 The sixteenth century......Page 129 The seventeenth century......Page 134 The first half of the eighteenth century: Nadir Shah......Page 135 The nineteenth century......Page 137 The Turkmen character and way of life......Page 138 Origins of the Oirat confederation......Page 142 The Oirats in the fifteenth and sixteenth centurie......Page 143 The Oirats in the early seventeenth century......Page 144 Khara Khula, the first chief of the Dzungar......Page 145 Oirat power under Güüshi Khan of the Khoshots and Ba’atur Khongtaiji of the Dzungars......Page 146 Galdan Boshoghtu, the Dzungar khan......Page 148 Conflict between the orgut chief Ayuki and the Dzungar chief Cewang Arabtan......Page 149 Galdan Cering’s reign and the fall of the Dzungar empire......Page 150 The Torguts’ return to the Ili and subsequent events......Page 151 Part Two - THE DZUNGARS AND THE TORGUTS (KALMUKS) IN CHINA......Page 152 Torgut migrations towards the northern Tian Shan......Page 153 The rise and fall of the Dzungar empire......Page 156 The Torguts’ return from the Volga......Page 160 The socio-economic and cultural development of the Oirats......Page 163 Part Three - THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN SIBERIA IN THE SIXTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES......Page 174 The western region of southern Siberia......Page 175 The middle region of southern Siberia......Page 177 The eastern region of southern Siberia......Page 178 The Tarim basin under the Chaghatay khanate......Page 182 The Tarim basin under the Dzungar empire......Page 192 The Tarim basin under the Qing......Page 202 The Mongol empire and its collapse (late fourteenth to late fifteenth century......Page 210 New state-building in Mongolia and the conversion to Buddhism (late fifteenth to early seventeenth century......Page 212 The Manchu conquest of Mongolia and the anti-Manchu uprisings (seventeenth to mid-eighteenth century)......Page 215 Mongolia and its political status under Qing suzerainty......Page 222 The Pamirs......Page 226 Badakhshan......Page 231 Part Two - THE TRANS-PAMIR STATES......Page 236 Gilgit......Page 237 Nagir and Hunza......Page 240 Chitral......Page 241 The Khushwaqt family of Yasin and Mastuj......Page 242 Baltistan......Page 244 The rajas of Khartaksho, Shigar and Khapalu......Page 246 The birth of an empire and the emergence of present-day Iran......Page 248 Shah Ismacil I (1501–24): the founder of a dynasty based on the Safavid order......Page 249 Shah Tahmasp I (1524–76): the consolidation of the empire......Page 251 A decade of upheavals (1576–87)......Page 254 Shah cAbbas the Great (1587–1629): the rebirth of the empire on a new foundation......Page 255 The long period of decline (1629–1722)......Page 259 Anarchy: the fall of the Safavids and the rule of the Ghilzais and Abdalis (1722–9)......Page 260 Nadir Shah (1736–47): the last great Asian conqueror......Page 262 Karim Khan Zand (1750–79): calm after the storm......Page 265 Part Three - THE EARLY QAJARS AT THE THRESHOLD OF THE MODERN WORLD (1795–1848)......Page 266 Fath cAli Shah (1796–1834): the last ruler from the Thousand and One Nights......Page 267 Muhammad Shah (1834–48): ailing warrior and mild modernizer......Page 271 Towards an Afghan state......Page 274 The formation of the Afghan state......Page 281 The fall of the Safavids and the conquest of Persia......Page 284 The establishment of the Afghan state......Page 286 Political history......Page 300 The imperial structure......Page 307 The social and economic framework......Page 311 High culture......Page 313 State and religion......Page 314 Decline of the empire (1707–1857)......Page 317 Kashmir, Punjab and Sind under the Mughals and their successors......Page 318 Eastern Central Asia......Page 326 The Mughal Indian empire and the Uzbeks......Page 330 The Safavid empire and the Mughals......Page 332 The nomads and the Transoxanian states......Page 333 The Portuguese Estado da India and Central Asian trade......Page 336 The seventeenth century: the intrusion of the Companies......Page 337 Rise of the British colonial empire......Page 338 Russian expansion......Page 340 Nomadic societies......Page 344 Sedentary societies......Page 349 Transoxania......Page 356 Iran......Page 361 India......Page 367 Geographic conditions......Page 374 The nomadic economy......Page 375 Agriculture......Page 377 Handicrafts......Page 380 The organization of handicrafts......Page 381 Individual crafts......Page 383 Southern Central Asia......Page 393 Kashmir......Page 394 The Indus plains......Page 398 The Afghan highlands......Page 401 Sistan and Khurasan......Page 404 Balkh and Badakhshan......Page 406 The pattern of trade......Page 408 The eighteenth century......Page 415 The early nineteenth century......Page 417 The 1820s......Page 419 The English involvement......Page 421 The period 1837–50......Page 422 The monetary reforms of Muhammad Shaybani Khan, 1507–10......Page 428 The currency crisis and the reforms of Kuchkunchi Khan......Page 433 Monetary policy following the reforms of Kuchkunchi Khan......Page 435 The pre-reform situation and the monetary reforms of cAbdullah Khan II in the late seventeenth century......Page 438 Monetary policy and currency circulation under the Janids (Astarkhanids) in the seventeenth century......Page 440 Gold and silver in the eighteenth century. The reforms of 1785......Page 442 East Turkistan (Xinjiang)......Page 445 Money in the Kokand khanate......Page 446 Money in the Bukhara emirate......Page 447 Money in the Khiva khanate......Page 449 Part Three - THE MONETARY SYSTEM IN SAFAVID PERSIA......Page 452 Part Four - THE MONETARY SYSTEM AND PRICE MOVEMENTS IN INDIA......Page 455 The space for reason......Page 462 Mathematics and astronomy......Page 465 Medicine......Page 467 Irrigation......Page 468 Water and wind power......Page 470 Craft technology......Page 472 Artillery......Page 475 Urban planning......Page 478 Architectural design and methods......Page 480 Religious architecture......Page 481 Civic architecture......Page 490 Architectural ensembles......Page 494 The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries......Page 504 Early trends......Page 509 Indian features......Page 512 Early Mughal architecture......Page 513 Other types of mausoleum......Page 516 Secular buildings......Page 518 The new mosque style......Page 522 The Mughal synthesis of styles......Page 523 Tian Shan Nanlu......Page 528 Tian Shan Beilu......Page 537 Part Four - MONGOL ARCHITECTURE......Page 542 Religious monuments......Page 546 Urban development......Page 552 The Safavids (1501–1736)......Page 556 The Afshars (1735–47) and the Zands (1747–94)......Page 579 The Qajars: from Agha Muhammad Khan to Muhammad Shah’s reign (1795–1848)......Page 580 The Shaybanids (Bukhara, 1500–98) and the Janids (Astarkhanids) (Bukhara, 1599–1753)......Page 582 Babur in India (1526–30) and the creation of Mughal India......Page 586 Prince Kamran and Humayun (1530–56)......Page 587 Akbar (1556–1605) and the birth of Mughal painting......Page 588 Jahangir (1605–27)......Page 598 Allegorical portraits and dynastic legitimacy......Page 601 The apogee of Mughal painting under Jahangir and Shah Jahan......Page 603 The last Mughals......Page 607 Xinjiang......Page 611 Mongolia......Page 617 Metalwork......Page 630 Copperware and bronze(or brass)ware......Page 631 Steelware......Page 640 Arms......Page 642 Gold and silverware......Page 646 Ceramics......Page 653 Sculpture......Page 657 Iran......Page 660 India......Page 662 Transoxania......Page 664 Part Two - TEXTILE ARTS IN TRANSOXANIA......Page 667 Craft workers and guilds......Page 668 Silk manufacture......Page 669 Classification of textiles......Page 670 Conclusion......Page 680 Part Three - CARPETS......Page 681 Khurasan (north-eastern Iran and Afghanistan)......Page 682 Western Turkistan......Page 687 Transoxania......Page 689 East Turkistan (Xinjiang)......Page 693 Mongolia and north-western China......Page 696 Northern India......Page 697 Part One - LITERATURE IN PERSIAN......Page 702 Principal prose works......Page 703 Major poets of Transoxania, Khurasan, Iran and India......Page 708 Lexicography......Page 716 Part Two - LITERATURE IN PASHTO......Page 717 Kashmiri......Page 720 Panjabi......Page 721 Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi)......Page 722 Appendix - THE LANGUAGES OF AFGHANISTAN......Page 723 Chaghatay/Uzbek literature......Page 730 Chaghatay Turki in Xinjiang......Page 734 Karakalpak (Qara-Qalpaq) literature......Page 735 Turkmen literature......Page 736 Turkic epic poetry......Page 737 Part Two - THE EPIC TRADITION AND HISTORICAL LITERATURE IN TURKIC......Page 739 Part Three - MONGOLIAN LITERATURE......Page 744 Part Four - MONGOLIAN LEXICOGRAPHY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY......Page 753 Introduction......Page 760 Philosophy......Page 761 Mystical philosophy......Page 766 Conclusion......Page 771 MAPS......Page 828 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 842 GLOSSARY......Page 914 INDEX......Page 920 BACK COVER......Page 936