History of Arbovirology: Memories From the Field : Volume II: Virus Family and Regional Perspectives, Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis

These books bring together a panel of expert arbovirologists who recall the history of arbovirology from very personal perspectives. In these timely volumes, the authors describe seminal moments in their experiences in the field and how they integrated these findings with lab studies to further clarify the ecology and epidemiology of diverse arboviruses. Authors identify the most pressing questions that remain to be answered, providing a basis for current research and a stimulus to engage those entering the field. Over the last 20 years a generational gap has developed between the giants of arbovirus research and discovery and the new generation. This gap developed due to an ebbing of training and investment in passing the scepter to the next generation, leading to a lack of continuity among the generations that threatens to derail the rich history of virus discovery, field epidemiology and understanding of the richness of diversity that surrounds us. This lack of continuity may have immediate and disastrous consequences for public health when yet to be discovered arboviruses emerge. The purpose of these books is to bridge this gap by providing a historical context for the work being done today and provide continuity between the generations. To this end, the books provide a narrative of the thrill of scientific discovery and excitement of field adventures and lab studies of that generation -- essential reading for every arbovirologist, and highly recommended for all virologists and public health officials, as well as those students considering future research options. Volume I consists of the personal reflections of arbovirologists who played a significant role in the advancement of arbovirology across the globe. Volume II transitions to descriptions of region-specific and virus family-specific perspectives of arbovirology, as well as recollections of the early events of molecular advances and pathogenesis studies. Volume II addresses region- and virus family-specific perspectives, as well as molecular biology and pathogenesis Offers a comprehensive historical analysis of arbovirology by crucial contributors to this field First-hand narratives of seminal studies and experiments, illuminating how these have contributed to current knowledge Preface Further Readings Introduction Contents About the Editors Contributors: Volume I Contributors: Volume II Part I: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis RNAi: The Mosquito Defense System Against Damage Due to Arbovirus Infection 1 Introduction 2 Early Steps 3 Our Early Explorations 4 Defining RNAi in Mosquitoes 5 Arbovirus Counterdefense and Alterations of Mosquito Genetics 6 Potential Involvement of Mosquito piRNA Pathway in Antiviral Defense 7 In Closing References A First-Hand Account of the Progression of Flavivirus Molecular Biology Research 1 My Path to a Career in Science 2 Graduate School 3 Initial Research on Flaviviruses 4 Postdoctoral Research 5 First Job 6 Flavivirus Research as an Independent Investigator 7 Move to Atlanta 8 Involvement in Virology Meetings 9 WNV in North America 10 Recent Advances in Flavivirus Molecular Biology References Sindbis Virus: Studies of Alphavirus Pathogenesis 1 Introduction 2 Early Studies in Mice and Age-Dependent Susceptibility 3 Molecular Determinants of Neurovirulence 4 Noncytolytic Immune-Mediated Mechanisms of Recovery from SINV Infection of the CNS 5 Viral RNA Persists Long After Infectious Virus Is Cleared 6 Immunopathogenesis and Fatal SINV Encephalomyelitis 7 Conclusion References Mechanisms of Tick-Borne Virus Transmission 1 Introduction 2 Modes of Transmission 3 Transmission by Needle Inoculation 4 Non-viremic Transmission 5 Saliva-Assisted Transmission References The Use of Humanized Mice to Understand Arbovirus Pathogenesis 1 Introduction 2 Humanized Mice 3 Infection by Virus Inoculation 4 Infection by Mosquito Bites 5 Results 6 Conclusions and Future Studies References Molecular Biology of Arboviruses 1 Determination of the Complete Sequence of the RNA Genome of Sindbis Virus 2 Genetic Studies and Construction of an “Infectious” Clone of Sindbis Virus 3 Studies on Flaviviruses 4 Hepatitis C Virus Is a Flavivirus 5 Epilogue: The year 2020 References Part II: Regional Perspectives Mosquito-Virus-Environment Interactions 1 From the Field to the Bench 2 Teaching Medical Entomology 3 Arboviruses and Vectorial Transmission 4 Importance of Population Genetic Studies 5 An Entomologist Meets Virology 6 Chikungunya Pandemic 6.1 Adaptation of the Viral Genome to a New Mosquito Vector 6.2 The Advantageous Mutation in Viral Genome Has Been Certainly Selected Only Once 6.3 Several CHIKV Genotypes Caused a Pandemic 7 ZIKV Follows the Path of DENV and CHIKV 8 Despite an Efficient Vaccine, Yellow Fever Remains a Major Public Health Issue 9 Tropical Arboviruses Becoming a Threat for Europe 9.1 CHIKV Hit Europe in 2007 9.2 DENV Followed CHIKV 9.3 ZIKV Has Conquered all Continents except Europe 9.4 RVF Is at the Door of Europe 10 Looking for an Alternative Way to Control Vector-Borne Diseases 10.1 The Bacterium Wolbachia Interferes with Arbovirus Transmission 10.2 Transgenic Mosquitoes to Combat Both CHIKV and DENV 10.3 Some Personal Statements as a Conclusion References A Brief Historical Overview of the Discovery of Arboviruses in the USSR and Russia 1 The Birth of Virology 2 The Development of Virology: The History of Emerging Viruses 3 Systemic Ecological Approach to Investigating of Zoonotic Viruses of Northern Eurasia 3.1 Alphaviruses 3.2 Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus, West Nile Virus, and Other Flaviviruses 3.3 Tick-Borne Cardioviruses 3.4 Orbiviruses 3.5 Tick-Borne Orthomyxoviruses 3.6 Bunyaviruses 4 Afterwards References The History of the Emergence of La Crosse Encephalitis Virus in the Driftless Area of the United States – A Mosquito Runs Through It! 1 Introduction 2 Background 2.1 Isolation of California Encephalitis Virus and the Emergence of the California Serogroup of Viruses 2.2 Retrospective and Prospective Serological Studies Demonstrate California Serogroup Virus Infections in Wisconsin 2.3 A New Virus – La Crosse Virus – Is Discovered in the Driftless Area 2.4 LAC Encephalitis: A Severe Disease of Children 2.5 Epidemiology of LACV in the Driftless Area 2.6 LAC Virus Infection Can Result In Significant Economic Costs 3 Defining the Natural History of LACV in the Driftless Area 3.1 Hunting the Vertebrate Host of LACV: Field and Laboratory Studies 3.2 Hunting the Vector of LACV: Field and Laboratory Studies 3.3 The Discovery of Transovarial Transmission and Transeasonal Maintenance of LACV in Aedes triseratus 3.4 The Discovery of Venereal Transmission of LACV by Infected Male Mosquitoes 3.5 The Discovery That LACV Infection Promotes Mating of Ae. triseriatus Females 3.6 The Proposed Transmission and Maintenance Cycles of LACV in the Driftless Area 3.7 The Proposed Cycle of LACV Is Insufficient to Maintain LACV in Nature 3.8 Could LACV Stabilized Infection of the Vector Condition LACV Maintenance in Nature? 3.9 The Discovery of Potentially LACV Stably Infected Ae. triseriatus in the Driftless Area 3.10 How Does LACV Elude the Powerful Vector Innate Antiviral Responses to Condition Long-Term, Persistent, and Stabilized Infections of Ae. triseriatus? 3.11 The Extraordinary Evolutionary Potential of LACV in Ae. triseriatus 4 The Major Risk Factors for Virus Transmission to Humans 5 The Changing Geographical Distribution of LAC Encephalitis Cases 5.1 Biting Back: The Rapid Development of the La Crosse County Vector Control Program 5.2 Partnering with Gundersen Clinic and La Crosse Lutheran Hospital Physicians and Scientists to Provide New Tools for LAC Encephalitis Diagnosis 5.3 Is History Repeating Itself? – The Increased Incidence of JCV Infections in Northern WI 6 Summary and Conclusions References “It Isn’t Going to Reach Here”: Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis in Texas, 1971 1 Introduction 2 My Responsibilities in the Arbovirus Unit 3 A Brief History of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis 4 VEEV-I AB Travels from South America to Northern Mexico 5 Definitive Preparedness Plus Educated Guesses 6 VEEV-I AB Reaches South Texas (Fig. 15) 7 Record Keeping 8 Escape from the Laboratory, into the Field at Last References History of Arbovirology in Canada 1 Introduction 2 Evolution of Arbovirus Programs in Canada 3 Earliest Canadian Arbovirus Infections: Yellow Fever and Western Equine Encephalitis 4 Powassan Virus: A Major Canadian Role 5 St. Louis Encephalitis Virus: A Significant Incursion into Canada 6 California Serogroup Viruses as Human Pathogens: Canadian Studies 7 West Nile Virus in Canada: A One Health Approach 8 EEEV Activity in Canada: Is This Pathogen a Permanent Resident of Canada? 9 Cache Valley Virus in Canada: A Collaborative Approach for Case Detection and Variant Identification 10 Reflections for the Future References Arbovirus Discovery in the British Empire: India and Africa, c. 1880–1960 1 Yellow Fever in West Africa 2 East Africa 3 Dengue and Emerging Infections in East Africa 4 Yellow Fever and the Panama Canal 5 India and the Problem of Dengue References History of Arbovirology in Japan 1 Dengue Virus: A “Foreign Virus” and the Japanese Civilization 2 Japanese Encephalitis Virus: A Domestic Virus References Ockelbo Disease in Sweden: Unraveling the Epidemiology, Ecology, and Evolution of Sindbis Virus 1 Introduction 2 Identification of Potential Vector Species and Temporal Variation in Vector Infection Rates 3 Experimental Testing of the Vector Competence of Potential Vector Species 4 Clearing Up Culex Confusion (Jenny Hesson) 5 Identifying Potential Amplifying Hosts by Sampling and Serology 6 Experimental Viremia and Antibody Profiling of Potential Amplifying Hosts 7 Infections in Humans, Horses, and Other Dead-End Hosts 8 Sindbis Virus Evolution and Geographical Dispersal 9 Sindbis Virus Persistence and the Way Forward References Human Arboviruses in Eastern, South-Eastern and Southern Asia: A Brief History of Their Isolation and Characteristics 1 Introduction 2 Tick-Borne Viruses 2.1 Mammalian Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Group Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus and Alkhurma Haemorrhagic Fever Virus Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Other Tick-Borne Flaviviruses 2.2 Huaiyangshan Haemorrhagic Fever (Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome) 2.3 Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Virus 3 Mosquito-Borne Viruses 3.1 Japanese Encephalitis Virus 3.2 West Nile Virus 3.3 The Dengue Viruses 3.4 Zika Virus 3.5 Chikungunya Virus 4 Phlebotomine-Borne Viruses 4.1 Chandipura Virus 5 Conclusions References History of Arbovirus Research in Kenya 1 Background References Vector Studies in the Amazon Basin Region of Peru 1 Background 2 The Peru Study 2.1 Comparison of Light Traps vs. Human Landing Collections, Day vs. Night, Ground vs. Canopy, Village vs. Forest, and Indoors vs. Outdoors 3 Detection of Viruses from Field-Collected Mosquitoes 4 Vector Competence Studies References Zika Virus Studies in West Africa 1 Introduction 2 Discovery of Zika Virus in Senegal 2.1 General Context 2.2 Human Infection and Epidemiology 2.3 Vector Associations and Amplification Frequency 2.4 Vertebrate Amplifying Hosts 3 Zika Virus in Other Parts of West Africa 3.1 Human Infection and Epidemiology 3.2 Vertebrate Amplifying Hosts 3.3 Vector Associations and Amplification Frequency 4 Phenotypes of Senegalese Zika Virus Strains 5 Conclusion References Part III: Virus Families Hemorrhagic Fevers Chronicles of Hantaviruses: Virus Discovery to Vaccine Candidates 1 Introduction 2 Characterization of Hantaviruses 3 Conclusions: Intersecting Lives and Important Arbovirologists References A History of Tick-Borne Encephalitis and Its Virus 1 The Origin of TBE Virus 2 The Pre-virus Era 3 The Discovery of TBE Virus and Tick Transmission 4 Epilogue References Kyasanur Forest Disease A Tale from the Horse’s Mouth 1 Introduction 2 The Cast 3 Alert in Shimoga 4 From Shimoga to Hunavalli, Back and Forth and Around, Gathering Facts 5 Great News from the Western Front 6 April 2 and 3 Action and Logistics 7 Path to Identification 8 The Epidemic (Work et al. 1957) 9 Last Piece of the Puzzle! 10 Hosts 11 Control 12 Conclusion 13 KFD Then and Now References The Discovery of Insect-Specific Viruses in Australia: Mozzies, Old Mates and New Methods 1 Introduction 2 Insect-Specific Flaviviruses in Australia 3 The Search for ISFs in Northern Australia 4 Elucidating the Host Range of ISFs 5 Persistence of ISFs in Mosquito Populations by Vertical Transmission 6 Elucidating Host Restriction Factors of ISFs 7 Chimeric ISFs Provide a Safe and Efficient Platform to Present Authentic Viral Antigens for Vaccine and Diagnostic Development 8 Evolution of ISFs 9 Discovery of Other Insect-Specific Viruses in Australia 10 Liao Ning Virus 11 Mesoniviruses 12 Bunyaviruses 13 Interaction of ISVs with Mosquito-Borne Pathogens 14 Conclusions References Index