Higher Performance Sailing : Faster Handling Techniques

__High Performance Sailing__ is now regarded as the bible of racing sailors and carries a string of endorsements from high achievers. Since its publication in 1984, racing yachts and dinghies have developed out of all recognition - a new high-tech breed of 'apparent wind' fast racers has claimed the water and so far no-one has applied themselves seriously to analysing what makes these boats sail fast (and what will make them faster). This is Frank Bethwaite's ground-breaking achievement in __Higher Performance Sailing__. By means of extensive research, and working with sailors of different racing calibre, Bethwaite analyses how to harness the apparent wind for increased speed and better position on your rivals. __Higher Performance Sailing__ will provide the key to racing sailors' dreams. Praise for Bethwaite's High Performance Sailing: __'It represents a breakthrough?It is a book that my Olympic squad will benefit from.'__ Rod Carr, former British Olympic Sailing Team Manager __'Allowed only one "if only" in yacht racing, it would have been to have read__ Higher Performance Sailing __years ago.'__ Bob Fisher, journalist, broadcaster and international championship winner Cover 1 Copyright 5 Contents 6 Introduction 18 List of Tables 17 List of Illustrations 22 PART ONE Perspective 24 Chapter 1 The Origins of High Performance 24 1.1 Summary 24 1.2 The first 4000 years 24 1.3 The century of bigger sails – 1800 to 1900 24 1.4 The sandbaggers of New York 25 1.5 The North American inland lakes 28 1.6 The skiffs of Sydney 29 The Planing Explosion – 1895 to 1905 34 1.7 England – first stirrings and private planing 34 1.8 New Zealand – Arch Logan, and the Patikis of Auckland 35 1.9 Canada – Herrick Duggan and the lake scows of Montreal 40 1.10 The trickle-through decades – 1900 to 1950 44 1.11 The South African interest 45 1.12 New Zealand after 1905 47 1.13 The English scene 51 1.14 The first half of the apparent wind revolution – 1970 to 1990 52 Chapter 2 The State of the Extreme Arts 58 2.1 Scope 58 2.2 Fastest sailcraft: Iceboats by Buddy Melges 58 2.3 Fastest waterborne: Sailboard by Finian Maynard 60 2.4 Recent fastest waterborne: Triscaphe by Lindsay Cunningham 62 2.5 Fastest practical foilborne: The Flying Moths by Dr Ian Ward 66 2.6 Fastest foilborne: The trifoilers by George C Chapman 72 PART TWO Wind 76 Foreword to Chapters 3–6 76 Chapter 3 Review of Wind Dynamics 79 Review of Wind Dynamics 79 3.1 The wind’s driving force 79 The Wind at the Surface 82 3.2 Cooled and heated winds 82 3.3 The boundary layer 84 3.4 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers at the small scale 84 3.5 Differences in scale between laboratory and nature 89 3.6 The racing sailor’s wind 90 3.7 Summary of Section 3.6 96 3.8 Consequences 97 The Wind above the Boundary Layer 98 3.9 Calm 98 3.10 Light air and its two layers 99 3.11 Breeze and its three layers 99 3.12 The turbulent layer 100 3.13 Aspects of the turbulent layer 105 3.14 The thin turbulent layers – the sea and lake breezes 106 3.15 The katabatic or drainage wind 111 3.16 Two unsteadying factors 111 3.17 Surface flow patterns within gusts 113 3.18 Summary of Chapter 3 113 Chapter 4 The Spectrum of the Wind 115 4.1 The emergence of wind tactics 115 4.2 Explaining the spectrum of the wind 116 Chapter 5 The Quick Gust Peaks 118 5.1 The quick changes in wind speed 118 5.2 The Dynes anemograph 119 5.3 Sherlock and Stout 120 5.4 The Kingston Tower traces 121 5.5 Conclusions regarding wind speed 123 5.6 The quick changes in wind direction 124 5.7 Conclusions regarding wind direction 124 Chapter 6 Surges and Fades 125 6.1 A question of scale 125 6.2 The ‘new kid on the block’ 126 6.3 The new opportunity 126 6.4 Conventional downwind technique 127 6.5 Apparent wind downwind technique 129 6.6 The new reality 130 6.7 Steps towards a good experimental design 131 6.8 Better observations 132 6.9 Analysis 133 6.10 Data to date 135 6.11 Postscripts from left field 136 PART THREE The Boat 138 Chapter 7 The Drive to Sail Faster 138 7.1 Seminal performance advances 138 7.2 The cradles of individually driven change 140 7.3 The cradles of group-driven change 140 7.4 The bigger sails era 140 7.5 The planing sailboat explosion 141 7.6 The apparent wind revolution – Australia 142 Chapter 8 Hulls – The Materials Revolution 146 8.1 Properties of shipbuilding materials 146 8.2 Modes of failure 147 8.3 The elastic limit 148 8.4 Failure by softening 149 8.5 Foam sandwich 150 Chapter 9 Hulls – The Design Response 151 9.1 The modern skiff 151 9.2 Structural evolution 151 9.3 Advanced wood design 153 9.4 The second structural revolution 154 9.5 The new dynamic design factors 155 9.6 Underwater shape 156 9.7 Control at planing speeds 156 9.8 Topsides 156 9.9 Waves and scows 158 9.10 Aerodynamic drag 158 9.11 Ergonomics 159 The Mechanical Factors 160 9.12 Gust response, the pre-load principle and rigidity 160 9.13 Torsion (twist) 161 9.14 Summary 162 Chapter 10 Hulls that Don’t Baulk 163 10.1 Background 163 10.2 The motion of a normal hull 163 10.3 Skin friction 163 10.4 Form drag 165 10.5 Wave-making drag 166 10.6 The concept of hull speed 167 10.7 Drag curves of non-planing sailboats 168 10.8 Drag curves of planing sailboats 168 10.9 Tow measurements – model and full size 170 10.10 Full-size tow tests 170 10.11 Our initial tow-test method 170 10.12 The gem in the dross 171 10.13 Revised tow method and further measurements 171 10.14 No hump – the practical effect 176 10.15 No hump – the perceived effect 176 10.16 No hump – the observed effect 176 10.17 Summary 176 10.18 Postscript 177 Chapter 11 More Power – Trapezes and Wings 180 11.1 The sliding plank 180 11.2 The trapeze – early development 181 11.3 The trapeze era 182 11.4 The beginnings of wings 184 11.5 Stub wings 185 11.6 Hinged wings 185 Chapter 12 Handicaps, Performance Equalisation, and Turns per Mile 186 12.1 The club environment 186 12.2 The two systems 186 12.3 Handicap racing 187 12.4 Scratch racing 187 12.5 The measurer’s methods 192 12.6 Summary 192 Chapter 13 Sail Forces in Steady Airflows 193 13.1 The wake-up call 193 13.2 The 1966 to 1975 low-speed R and D work 194 The First Phase 194 13.3 Development of the adjustable rig 194 13.4 The Datum Mark system 195 The Second Phase – Further Observations 196 13.5 Early experiments 196 13.6 Laminar and turbulent flow 199 13.7 Boundary layer flows around sails and foils 199 13.8 The boundary layer, free stream and undisturbed flow 200 13.9 Tufts, leech ribbons and sail trim – summary 200 13.10 The separation bubble 202 13.11 Leech ribbons 203 The Third Phase – Measurement and Analysis 204 13.12 The standard texts 204 13.13 Simple lift and drag forces 205 13.14 Sydney University wind tunnel measurements 206 The Fourth Phase – Smoke Flow Observations 210 13.15 Smoke plume apparatus 210 13.16 The separation bubble 210 13.17 Trajectory, speed and pressure 211 13.18 The turbine blade principle 212 13.19 Flow around sails of single and multiple boats 214 13.20 Special application work 214 The Fifth Phase – On the Water Comparison 215 13.21 Experimental method 215 13.22 Fleet comparison method 216 13.23 Summary 217 PART FOUR Performance Advances 1991 to 2008 218 Chapter 14 Evolution of the B-18 Marque 218 14.1 Performance advances – overview 218 14.2 Hull shape development 219 14.3 The B-14 and its different rig 221 14.4 The B-18 marque: origins 222 14.5 The initial B-18 design 224 14.6 The B-18 marque, development 225 14.7 The first ‘recovery’ season: 1989–90 225 14.8 The European Exhibition Tour, 1990 226 14.9 The beginning of the 1990–1 season 228 14.10 The Prime two-hander experience 228 14.11 The AAMI background 228 14.12 AAMI I – the 1990–1 season 230 14.13 Truth and politics 233 Chapter 15 Design Refinement for Long-course Speed BY JULIAN BETHWAITE 235 15.1 The second design revolution 235 15.2 The emerging promotional effect 235 15.3 Revised plan 236 15.4 Cosmetics 237 15.5 1991–2 – All States/AAMI IV, year 2 – design objects 237 15.6 The European Exhibition Tour, 1991 237 15.7 Tacking technique 239 15.8 Eighteen footer racing tack 242 15.9 Eighteen footer safety tack 243 15.10 Gybing technique 243 15.11 The environmental factors by Frank Bethwaite 244 15.12 Eighteen footer racing gybe 247 15.13 Eighteen footer survival gybe 248 15.14 The 1991–2 boat 248 15.15 Second-order weight reduction 249 15.16 Aerodynamic drag reduction – the hull 250 15.17 Aerodynamic drag reduction – wings, crew and rig 251 15.18 Spinnaker chute 251 15.19 Conservation of speed 253 15.20 Flatter sails 253 15.21 Centreboard flow-on effects 253 15.22 Acceleration consequences 254 15.23 No 1 course record sail 254 15.24 Mast stiffness – distribution of flexibility 254 Chapter 16 Design Refinement for Short-course Manoeuvrability 256 16.1 The development of the skiff TV spectacle 256 16.2 Development of the shorter-course format 257 16.3 The different tactical demands of the shorter courses 258 16.4 Hull design 259 16.5 Rig development 259 Chapter 17 The 49er 260 17.1 Concept and origins 260 17.2 New factors 260 17.3 The initial English input 261 17.4 The consortium 262 17.5 Design objects and details 262 17.6 The prototype design 263 17.7 The prototype rig 263 17.8 The ergonomic revolution 264 17.9 The test pilots 265 17.10 ‘Bye-bye wishbone’ 265 17.11 Three steps along the way 266 17.12 The ISAF HPOD criteria 266 17.13 The consortium’s response to the criteria 267 17.14 The 49er final design 268 17.15 Global spread 268 17.16 The evaluation event 269 17.17 Refinements 271 Chapter 18 Transition Years 274 18.1 The big changes 274 18.2 Spinnaker size 274 18.3 Automatic response 275 18.4 The apparent-wind-angle (Beta) limit 276 18.5 The practical speed increases of the skiff revolution 277 Chapter 19 The 29er 278 19.1 The properties of a skiff 278 19.2 Earlier work – the Laser Two 279 19.3 The 29er – the cut and try approach 279 19.4 29er Prototype Mk I – May 1997 280 19.5 29er Prototype Mk II 281 19.6 The durability revolution 281 19.7 Mark II hull, statics and dynamics 282 19.8 29er Prototype Mk III 282 19.9 29er Prototype Mk IV 283 19.10 Acceptance and spread 285 Chapter 20 The Critical Ratios 286 20.1 Smaller is harder 286 20.2 The experimental Tasar 287 20.3 The shape of the problem 289 20.4 The beginning of wisdom 289 20.5 Analysis – step one 290 20.6 Analysis – step two 292 20.7 Interference 292 20.8 Transition from laminar to turbulent flow 292 20.9 The third step – the critical ratios 293 20.10 The first critical ratio – sail area to wetted area 294 20.11 The second critical ratio – sail area to total weight 295 20.12 The third critical ratio – sail-carrying power to total weight 296 20.13 The fourth critical ratio – the rig’s handling properties 296 20.14 Summary 297 PART FIVE The Automatic Rig 298 Chapter 21 The Evolution of Manual Adjustment 298 21.1 The drive for adjustment 298 21.2 Slow adjustment through the ages 298 21.3 Unintentional slow adjustment technique 299 21.4 Rigid rigs and manually adjustable rigs 299 21.5 The calculated speed gains 301 Chapter 22 The Automatic Rig 307 22.1 The seminal change 307 22.2 The consolidation years 311 22.3 The mechanics of the manual and the automatic rig 312 22.4 The variables 314 22.5 Postscript – a more automatic rig in action 316 PART SIX The Sailing Simulator 318 Chapter 23 The Evolution of the Sailing Simulator 318 23.1 Similarities with the flight simulator 318 23.2 Flight simulator development – substitution 318 23.3 Flight crew emergency training 319 23.4 Flight simulator development – extension 319 23.5 Sailing simulator origins and development to date 320 23.6 The first generation 321 23.7 The second generation – technical development 321 Chapter 24 A New Way of Thinking 323 24.1 Sailing – the sportsman’s view 323 24.2 Sailing – the simulator’s view 324 24.3 The journey of discovery 325 24.4 Initial use 326 24.5 Overview of the task 327 Working with Children 327 24.6 First trial with beginners – unsupportive environment 327 24.7 Second trial with beginners – supportive environment 328 24.8 Third trial with beginners – using the new opportunity 330 Working with Adults 332 24.9 Development of the benchmark technique 332 24.10 The benchmark technique at work 333 24.11 Delegation and attempted integration 334 24.12 A World Championship 335 24.13 Pilot group ‘simulator plus on-water trial’ 335 24.14 Objective achieved 339 24.15 A new way of thinking 339 24.16 Natural handling technique 340 24.17 Fast handling technique 341 24.18 The four key differences 344 24.19 Summary 344 Chapter 25 The Simulator Printout 346 25.1 The critical difference 346 25.2 The leader’s technique and the boat’s response 347 25.3 The typical follower’s technique 348 25.4 How the leader thinks 349 PART SEVEN Handling 350 Chapter 26 Fast Handling Technique 350 26.1 Foreword 350 26.2 The turning manoeuvres 351 26.3 The Tack 353 26.4 The mark rounding 358 26.5 The two gybe manoeuvres 362 26.5.1 The ‘wind from behind’ gybe 365 26.5.2 The apparent wind gybe 369 26.6 Straight-line sailing 373 26.7 Arc I: To windward 374 26.8 Arc III: Reaching and broad reaching 380 26.9 Arc III: Close reaching 386 26.10 Arc IV: Running square or near-square 386 26.11 Stop–start sailing, and snaking for steady speed 386 26.12 Summary of fast technique 387 26.13 The scan 389 Chapter 27 Handling an Apparent Wind Skiff 391 27.1 The contributors 391 27.2 Seamanship 391 27.3 Explanation of Figs 27.1 and 27.2 393 27.4 The dynamic differences upwind 395 27.5 The dynamic differences downwind 396 27.6 Planning and handling – upwind 397 27.7 Downwind – scanning and planning 401 27.8 Use of gusts 404 27.9 Downwind – handling 405 27.10 Handling the larger skiffs by Julian Bethwaite 408 27.11 29er Handling in Strong Winds by Scott Babbage (in consultation with David O’Connor) 414 Chapter 28 Sailing the Foil Moth BY ROHAN VEAL 416 28.1 Foil Moth experience 416 28.2 Essential prior experience 417 28.3 Sailing environment for learning 417 28.4 Handling and preparation onshore 418 28.5 Moving to the water – launching 418 28.6 Moving offshore – also returning 419 28.7 Height control 419 28.8 Sailing the foil Moth 420 PART EIGHT Racing at a High Level 424 Chapter 29 Racing with Speed: ‘Connecting the Dots’ 424 29.1 Strategy by Frank Bethwaite 424 29.2 Connecting the dots by Paul Cayard 424 29.3 Eighteen foot skiff: No 1 course record sail by Julian Bethwaite 425 29.4 Laser: cutting the corners by Mark Bethwaite 427 29.5 Tasar: risk management in racing by Rob and Nicole Douglass 429 29.6 29er:World Championships,Weymouth 2006 by Scott Babbage (in consultation with Silja Lehtinen) 433 29.7 49er: Coaching Gold Medallists by Emmett Lazich 438 Index 445 A 445 B 445 C 445 D 445 E 446 F 446 G 446 H 446 I 447 J 447 K 447 L 447 M 447 N 448 O 448 P 448 R 448 S 448 T 449 U 449 V 449 W 449 Y 449 Z 449 Cover Title page Table of Contents List of Tables List of Illustrations Introduction PART ONE Perspective Chapter 1 The Origins of High Performance 1.1 Summary 1.2 The first 4000 years 1.3 The century of bigger sails -- 1800 to 1900 1.4 The sandbaggers of New York 1.5 The North American inland lakes 1.6 The skiffs of Sydney The Planing Explosion -- 1895 to 1905 1.7 England -- first stirrings and private planing 1.8 New Zealand -- Arch Logan, and the Patikis of Auckland 1.9 Canada -- Herrick Duggan and the lake scows of Montreal 1.10 The trickle-through decades -- 1900 to 1950. 1.11 The South African interest1.12 New Zealand after 1905 1.13 The English scene 1.14 The first half of the apparent wind revolution -- 1970 to 1990 2.1 Scope 2.2 Fastest sailcraft: Iceboats by Buddy Melges 2.3 Fastest waterborne: Sailboard by Finian Maynard 2.4 Recent fastest waterborne: Triscaphe by Lindsay Cunningham 2.5 Fastest practical foilborne: The Flying Moths by Dr Ian Ward 2.6 Fastest foilborne: The trifoilers by George C Chapman Chapter 2 The State of the Extreme Arts PART TWO Wind Foreword to Chapters 3-6 3.1 The wind's driving force The Wind at the Surface. 3.2 Cooled and heated winds3.3 The boundary layer 3.4 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers at the small scale 3.5 Differences in scale between laboratory and nature 3.6 The racing sailor's wind 3.7 Summary of Section 3.6 3.8 Consequences The Wind above the Boundary Layer 3.9 Calm 3.10 Light air and its two layers 3.11 Breeze and its three layers 3.12 The turbulent layer 3.13 Aspects of the turbulent layer 3.14 The thin turbulent layers -- the sea and lake breezes 3.15 The katabatic or drainage wind 3.16 Two unsteadying factors 3.17 Surface flow patterns within gusts. 3.18 Summary of Chapter 3Chapter 3 Review of Wind Dynamics Review of Wind Dynamics 4.1 The emergence of wind tactics 4.2 Explaining the spectrum of the wind Chapter 4 The Spectrum of the Wind Chapter 5 The Quick Gust Peaks 5.1 The quick changes in wind speed 5.2 The Dynes anemograph 5.3 Sherlock and Stout 5.4 The Kingston Tower traces 5.5 Conclusions regarding wind speed 5.6 The quick changes in wind direction 5.7 Conclusions regarding wind direction Chapter 6 Surges and Fades 6.1 A question of scale 6.2 The 'new kid on the block' 6.3 The new opportunity. 6.4 Conventional downwind technique6.5 Apparent wind downwind technique 6.6 The new reality 6.7 Steps towards a good experimental design 6.8 Better observations 6.9 Analysis 6.10 Data to date 6.11 Postscripts from left field PART THREE The Boat Chapter 7 The Drive to Sail Faster 7.1 Seminal performance advances 7.2 The cradles of individually driven change 7.3 The cradles of group-driven change 7.4 The bigger sails era 7.5 The planing sailboat explosion 7.6 The apparent wind revolution -- Australia Chapter 8 Hulls -- The Materials Revolution.

High Performance Sailing is now regarded as the bible of racing sailors and carries a string of endorsements from high achievers. Since its publication in 1984, racing yachts and dinghies have developed out of all recognition - a new high-tech breed of 'apparent wind' fast racers has claimed the water and so far no-one has applied themselves seriously to analysing what makes these boats sail fast (and what will make them faster). This is Frank Bethwaite's ground-breaking achievement in Higher Performance Sailing. By means of extensive research, and working with sailors of different racing calibre, Bethwaite analyses how to harness the apparent wind for increased speed and better position on your rivals. Higher Performance Sailing will provide the key to racing sailors' dreams.

Praise for Bethwaite's High Performance Sailing:
'It represents a breakthrough?It is a book that my Olympic squad will benefit from.'
Rod Carr, former British Olympic Sailing Team Manager

'Allowed only one "if only" in yacht racing, it would have been to have read Higher Performance Sailing years ago.'
Bob Fisher, journalist, broadcaster and international championship winner

'Monumental!' - Bob Ross, Australian Sailing High Performance Sailing is now regarded as the bible of racing sailors and carries a string of endorsements from high achievers. Since its publication in 1984, racing yachts and dinghies have developed out of all recognition - a new high-tech breed of 'apparent wind' fast racers has claimed the water and so far no-one has applied themselves seriously to analysing what makes these boats sail fast (and what will make them faster). This is Frank Bethwaite's ground-breaking achievement in Higher Performance Sailing . By means of extensive research, and working with sailors of different racing calibre, Bethwaite analyses how to harness the apparent wind for increased speed and better position on your rivals. Higher Performance Sailing will provide the key to racing sailors' dreams. Praise for Bethwaite's High Performance Sailing: 'It represents a breakthrough...It is a book that my Olympic squad will benefit from.' Rod Carr, former British Olympic Sailing Team Manager 'Allowed only one "if only" in yacht racing, it would have been to have read Higher Performance Sailing years ago.' Bob Fisher, journalist, broadcaster and international championship winner Annotation 'Monumental!' - Bob Ross,Australian SailingHigh Performance Sailingisnow regarded as the bible of racing sailors and carries a string ofendorsements from high achievers. Since its publication in 1984, racingyachts and dinghies have developed out of all recognition - a newhigh-tech breed of 'apparent wind' fast racers has claimed the waterand so far no-one has applied themselves seriously to analysing whatmakes these boats sail fast (and what will make them faster). This is Frank Bethwaite's ground-breaking achievement in Higher Performance Sailing.By means of extensive research, and working with sailors of differentracing calibre, Bethwaite analyses how to harness the apparent windfor increased speed and better position on your rivals. Higher Performance Sailingwillprovide the key to racing sailors' dreams.Praise for Bethwaite's High Performance Sailing:'It represents a breakthroughIt is a book that my Olympic squad will benefit from.'Rod Carr, former British Olympic Sailing Team Manager'Allowed only one "if only" in yacht racing, it would have been to have read Higher Performance Sailingyears ago.'Bob Fisher, journalist, broadcaster and international championship winner Monumental!' - Bob Ross, Australian Sailing High Performance Sailing is now regarded as the bible of racing sailors and carries a string of endorsements from high achievers. Since its publication in 1984, racing yachts and dinghies have developed out of all recognition - a new high-tech breed of 'apparent wind' fast racers has claimed the water and so far no-one has applied themselves seriously to analysing what makes these boats sail fast (and what will make them faster). This is Frank Bethwaite's ground-breaking achievement in Higher Performance Sailing . By means o.;Cover; Title page; Table of Contents; List of Tables; List of Illustrations; Introduction; PART ONE Perspective; Chapter 1 The Origins of High Performance; 1.1 Summary; 1.2 The first 4000 years; 1.3 The century of bigger sails -- 1800 to 1900; 1.4 The sandbaggers of New York; 1.5 The North American inland lakes; 1.6 The skiffs of Sydney; The Planing Explosion -- 1895 to 1905; 1.7 England -- first stirrings and private planing; 1.8 New Zealand -- Arch Logan, and the Patikis of Auckland; 1.9 Canada -- Herrick Duggan and the lake scows of Montreal; 1.10 The trickle-through decades -- 1900 to 1950.