Heavy Metals in the Environment (Advances in Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment)

A successful modern heavy metal control program for any industry will include not only traditional water pollution control, but also air pollution control, soil conservation, site remediation, groundwater protection, public health management, solid waste disposal, and combined industrial-municipal heavy metal waste management. In fact, it should be a total environmental control program. Comprehensive in scope, Heavy Metals in the Environment provides technical and economical information on the development of a feasible total heavy metal control program that can benefit industry and local municipalities. The book discusses the importance and contamination of metals such as lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc, copper, nickel, iron, and mercury. It covers important research of metals in the environment, the processes and mechanisms for metals control and removal, the environmental behavior and effects of engineered metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, environmental geochemistry of high arsenic aquifer systems, nano-technology applications in metal ion adsorption, biosorption of metals, and heavy metal removal by expopolysaccharide-producing cyanobacteria. The authors delineate technologies for metals treatment and management, metal bearing effluents, metal-contaminated solid wastes, metal finishing industry wastes and brownfield sites, and arsenic-contaminated groundwater streams. They also discuss control, treatment, and management of metal emissions from motor vehicles. The authors reflect the breadth of the field and draw on personal experiences to provide an in-depth presentation of environmental pollution sources, waste characteristics, control technologies, management strategies, facility innovations, process alternatives, costs, case histories, effluent standards, and future trends for each industrial or commercial operation. The methodologies and technologies discussed are directly applicable to the waste management problems that must be met in all industries. Heavy Metals In The Environment......Page 1 Related Titles......Page 2 Contents......Page 5 Preface......Page 7 Editors......Page 9 Contributors......Page 10 1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 12 1.3.1 LANGUAGE OF PUBLICATION......Page 13 1.3.3 PUBLICATION PERFORMANCE: COUNTRIES, INSTITUTES, AND AUTHORSHIP......Page 14 1.3.4 RESEARCH EMPHASIS: AUTHOR KEYWORDS AND KEYWORDS PLUS......Page 19 1.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 21 REFERENCES......Page 22 CONTENTS......Page 24 2.1.1.1 Lead......Page 25 2.1.1.1.2 Health Effects......Page 26 2.1.1.2 Cadmium......Page 27 2.1.1.2.2 Health Considerations......Page 28 2.1.1.3.1 Occurrence......Page 29 2.1.1.3.2 Health Effects......Page 30 2.1.1.3.4 Toxicity......Page 31 2.1.1.4 Chromium......Page 32 2.1.2.1 Uranium......Page 33 2.1.2.1.2 Chemical Toxicity......Page 34 2.1.2.2.2 Health Effects......Page 35 2.1.3.2 Arsenic- Contaminated Countries......Page 36 2.1.3.3 Clinical Effects......Page 37 2.2 METALS IN GROUNDWATERS......Page 38 2.2.1 HEAVY METALS IN AQUIFERS......Page 39 2.2.2 CASES AND REMEDIATION......Page 44 2.3.1.1 Chemistry of Acid Mine Water......Page 46 2.3.1.2 Extent of the Damage......Page 47 2.3.1.3 Radioactive AMD......Page 48 2.3.1.4.2 Vegetation Cover......Page 49 2.3.1.4.3 Wet Barriers and Wetlands......Page 50 2.3.2 METAL FINISHING AND SURFACE TREATMENT OPERATIONS......Page 51 2.3.2.1 A Typical Electroplating Process......Page 54 2.3.3 LEATHER TANNING PROCESS......Page 56 2.3.3.1 Description of the Chromium Tanning Process......Page 57 2.3.3.1.2 Tanyard Process......Page 58 2.3.3.2.1 A Leather Tannery Wastewater Case......Page 59 2.3.3.3.2 Treatment Improvements......Page 61 2.3.4 FERROUS METAL INDUSTRIES......Page 62 2.3.4.1.1 Primary Iron and Steel Production......Page 63 2.3.5 COAL- FIRED POWER GENERATION......Page 64 2.3.5.1 Coal- Fired Station Types......Page 66 2.3.5.2 Generating Station Water Use......Page 68 REFERENCES......Page 69 3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 73 3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NPs......Page 75 3.3.1 NATURAL INORGANIC NPS......Page 76 3.3.3 ENGINEERED INORGANIC NPS......Page 77 3.4 nZVI FOR GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION......Page 79 3.5 RELEASE OF INORGANIC NPs INTO THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 81 3.6.1 BEHAVIOR DURING WATER AND WASTE TREATMENT......Page 82 3.6.2 BEHAVIOR IN WATER......Page 83 3.6.3 BEHAVIOR IN POROUS MEDIA......Page 84 3.7.2 EXPOSURE MODELING......Page 85 3.8.2 ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 87 3.8.3 " TROJAN HORSE" EFFECT......Page 89 REFERENCES......Page 90 CONTENTS......Page 98 4.1.1 HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN WATER BODIES: AN INCREASING CONCERN FOR HUMAN HEALTH......Page 99 4.1.2.3 Flotation......Page 100 4.1.2.6 Electrochemical Treatment Techniques......Page 101 4.1.3 HEAVY METAL REMOVAL: USE OF MICROORGANISMS......Page 102 TABLE 4.1 Most Important Heavy Metal- Binding Groups Present in the External Layers of Microbial Cells......Page 103 4.1.4.2 Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm......Page 104 4.2.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CYANOBACTERIA......Page 105 4.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POLYSACCHARIDIC EXTERNAL STRUCTURES IN CYANOBACTERIA......Page 106 4.3.1 PUTATIVE MECHANISMS OF METAL BIOSORPTION WITH CYANOBACTERIA......Page 108 4.3.2 HEAVY METAL REMOVAL WITH CYANOBACTERIA......Page 110 4.3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING METAL UPTAKE BY CYANOBACTERIA......Page 117 4.4.1 MODELING MICROBIAL BIOSORPTION IN MULTIMETAL SOLUTIONS......Page 118 4.4.2 METAL BIOSORPTION BY CYANOBACTERIA IN MULTIMETAL SOLUTIONS......Page 120 4.4.3 SELECTIVITY IN METAL REMOVAL IN MULTIMETAL SOLUTIONS......Page 122 4.5.1 CASE STUDY 1: CYANOSPIRA CAPSULATA FOR THE REMOVAL OF METALS FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATERS......Page 123 4.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 125 TABLE 4.4 Comparison of the Best Results Obtained in the Bioremoval of Cu with Microorganisms and Macroalgae......Page 126 REFERENCES......Page 127 TABLE 4.2 Heavy Metal Removal by Cyanobacteria: Results Obtained with the Cyanobacteria and the Metals So Far Tested......Page 111 TABLE 4.2 ( continued)......Page 112 TABLE 4.2 ( continued)......Page 113 TABLE 4.2 ( continued)......Page 114 TABLE 4.2 ( continued)......Page 115 TABLE 4.3 Metal Composition of the Percolates of Two Wastes Derived from Industrial Fermentations Utilized for Experiments of Biosorption with the EPS- Producing Cyanobacterium......Page 124 CONTENTS......Page 132 5.2.1 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF AS IN ROCKS, SEDIMENTS, AND SOILS......Page 133 5.2.2 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF AS IN GROUNDWATERS......Page 134 5.2.3 SOURCE AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF AS IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 136 5.3 As SPECIES IN NATURAL WATERS......Page 138 5.4 GEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR OF As IN As- AFFECTED AQUIFERS......Page 140 5.4.2 ADSORPTION AND DESORPTION......Page 141 5.4.2.1 As Sorption to Fe, Al, and Mn ( Hydro) oxides......Page 142 5.4.2.3 Enhanced Sorption by Cations......Page 143 5.4.3 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION......Page 144 5.4.4.1 Microbial Arsenite Oxidation......Page 145 5.4.4.2.2 Dissimilatory Arsenate Reduction......Page 146 5.4.5 ROLE OF NOM......Page 147 5.4.5.3 NOM– As Complexation......Page 148 5.5.1.1 Common Hydrological and Hydrochemical Features of These Aquifers......Page 149 5.5.1.2 As Mobilization in Aquifers......Page 151 5.5.2 FORMATION OF SODA WATERS AND GROUNDWATER AS PROBLEMS IN NORTHERN CHINA......Page 152 REFERENCES......Page 154 6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 163 6.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOMATERIALS......Page 165 6.3.1.1 Removal of Cr( VI)......Page 169 6.3.1.2.1 Removal of Ni( II)......Page 171 6.3.1.2.2 Removal of Pb( II)......Page 178 6.3.1.2.4 Removal of Cu( II)......Page 185 6.3.1.2.5 Removal of Zn( II)......Page 189 6.3.2 KINETIC SORPTION AND DESORPTION OF 152+154EU(III)......Page 198 6.3.3 EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATERIAL......Page 201 6.3.4.1 MWCNT– TiO2 Composites......Page 202 6.3.4.2 MWCNT– Iron Oxide Magnetic Composites......Page 205 REFERENCES......Page 206 7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 209 7.2.1 BIOSORPTION CAPACITY......Page 210 7.3.1 INITIAL METAL CONCENTRATION......Page 213 7.3.3 TEMPERATURE......Page 214 7.3.4 CONTACT TIME......Page 215 7.4.1 BIOSORPTION ISOTHERMS......Page 216 7.4.2 BIOSORPTION KINETICS......Page 218 7.5 BIOSORPTION MECHANISM......Page 219 7.5.1 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY/ EDX......Page 220 7.5.2 XRD......Page 221 7.5.3 FTIR/ XPS......Page 222 7.6 ECONOMY......Page 226 7.7.2 APPLICATION OF BIOSORPTION TECHNOLOGY......Page 228 REFERENCES......Page 229 8.1.1 ARSENIC CHEMISTRY......Page 232 8.1.2 SOURCES OF ARSENIC POLLUTION......Page 233 8.2.2 ARSENIC POLLUTION IN BANGLADESH......Page 234 8.3.1 ARSENIC TOXICOLOGY......Page 235 8.3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF ARSENIC-RELATED DISEASES IN THE WORLD......Page 236 8.4.1 OXIDATION......Page 237 8.4.1.2 Permanganate......Page 238 8.4.2.1 Coagulation/ Flocculation......Page 239 8.4.2.2 Filtration......Page 243 8.4.3.1 Manganese Oxides......Page 244 8.4.3.2 FMBO......Page 245 8.4.4 LIME SOFTENING......Page 247 8.4.6 MEMBRANE SEPARATION......Page 248 REFERENCES......Page 249 CONTENTS......Page 253 9.1.1 CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION......Page 254 9.1.1.2 pH Adjustment......Page 255 9.1.1.3 Coagulation/ Flocculation/ Clarifi cation......Page 256 9.1.1.6 Sludge Dewatering......Page 257 9.1.2.1 Batch Treatment......Page 258 9.1.2.3 Sludge Recirculation......Page 259 9.1.3.2 Lead......Page 260 9.1.4 METAL RECOVERY FROM SLUDGES......Page 261 9.1.4.2 Lime Sludges......Page 262 9.1.4.3 Iron Sludges......Page 263 9.2 ION EXCHANGE MATERIALS......Page 264 9.2.1.1 Strong Acid Cations......Page 266 9.2.1.2 Weak Acid Cations......Page 267 9.2.1.3 Strong and Weak Base Anions......Page 268 9.2.1.4 Adsorbent Resins......Page 269 9.2.2.1 Nickel......Page 270 9.2.2.4 Mercury......Page 271 9.2.2.5 A Case Study......Page 272 9.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF REVERSE OSMOSIS......Page 273 9.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES, ELECTROWINNING......Page 275 9.4.2 FORCED FLOW CELL ( FLOW-BY CATHODE)......Page 276 9.4.4 MESH CATHODE ( FLOW-THROUGH CATHODE)......Page 277 9.4.6 FLUIDIZED BED CELLS ( FLOW-THROUGH CATHODE)......Page 279 9.5 ADSORPTION......Page 280 9.5.1.1.1 Main Applications......Page 282 9.5.1.1.2 Adsorptive Capacity of Carbon......Page 283 9.5.1.1.3 Regeneration of the Activated Carbon......Page 284 9.6.1 MAIN OXIDATION TECHNIQUES......Page 285 9.6.1.1 Application: Treatment of Cyanides......Page 286 9.8 WETLAND METAL MINERALIZATION......Page 287 9.8.2 VEGETATION......Page 289 9.8.3 ALGAE, MICROBES, AND MICROBIALLY MEDIATED PROCESSES......Page 290 9.8.5 METAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES......Page 291 9.9 BIOSORPTION......Page 292 REFERENCES......Page 293 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 297 CONTENTS......Page 298 10.1.4 ACID PICKLING OPERATION......Page 299 10.2.2 SULFURIC ACID PICKLING REACTION......Page 300 10.3.2 NEUTRALIZATION AND CLARIFICATION (SEDIMENTATION OR DAF)......Page 301 10.3.3 CRYSTALLIZATION AND REGENERATION......Page 302 10.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATERS......Page 304 10.4.3 TREATMENT METHODS......Page 307 10.5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT......Page 309 10.5.2.1 Manufacturing Process......Page 312 10.5.2.1.2 Acid Pickling......Page 313 10.5.2.2 Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention......Page 314 10.5.2.4 Engineering Calculations for the Determination of Hydrochloric Acid Requirements......Page 316 10.5.2.5 Engineering Calculations for the Determination of Ferrous Chloride Recovered......Page 317 REFERENCES......Page 318 CONTENTS......Page 320 11.1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION......Page 321 11.2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION......Page 325 11.2.1 COMMON METALS SUBCATEGORY......Page 327 11.2.4 CYANIDE SUBCATEGORY......Page 330 11.2.5 HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM SUBCATEGORY......Page 331 11.2.6 OILS SUBCATEGORY......Page 332 11.3.1 CHEMICAL SUBSTITUTION......Page 335 11.3.2 WASTE SEGREGATION......Page 336 11.3.3.2 Longer Drain Times......Page 337 11.3.3.3.2 Low- Concentration Plating Solutions......Page 338 11.3.3.3.7 Fog Sprays or Air Knives......Page 339 11.3.3.4.1 Capture/ Concentration with Full Reuse of Drag- Out......Page 340 11.3.4 WASTE REDUCTION COSTS......Page 341 11.4 POLLUTANT REMOVABILITY......Page 342 11.4.1 COMMON METALS......Page 343 11.4.5 CYANIDE......Page 346 11.5.1 NEUTRALIZATION......Page 347 11.5.2 CYANIDE- CONTAINING WASTES......Page 348 11.5.3 CHROMIUM- CONTAINING WASTES......Page 350 11.5.4.1 Chemical Precipitation and Sedimentation......Page 351 11.5.4.2 Complexation......Page 352 11.6.1 TYPICAL TREATMENT OPTIONS......Page 353 11.6.2 COST ANALYSIS......Page 354 11.7 U. S. CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS FOR METAL FINISHING EFFLUENT DISCHARGE MANAGEMENT......Page 355 11.7.1 APPLICABILITY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE METAL FINISHING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY......Page 356 11.7.4 EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON THE BAT......Page 357 11.7.5 PSES......Page 358 11.7.6 NSPS......Page 360 11.7.7 PSNS......Page 361 11.8 SPECIALIZED DEFINITIONS......Page 362 REFERENCES......Page 363 12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 365 12.3 HANDLING, MANAGEMENT, AND DISPOSAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC WASTES: THE U. S. EXPERIENCE......Page 366 12.5.1 GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF ELECTRONIC WASTE APPLIANCES......Page 368 12.5.3 GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF SMALL ELECTRICAL WASTE APPLIANCES......Page 370 12.5.4 GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING WASTE APPLIANCES......Page 371 12.5.5 GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF UNIVERSAL WASTES......Page 372 12.5.6 MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF A SPECIFIC ELECTRONIC WASTE: CRTS......Page 375 12.5.8 MANAGEMENT, REUSE, RECYCLE, AND DISPOSAL OF VEHICLE BATTERIES......Page 376 12.5.9 MANAGEMENT, REUSE, RECYCLE, AND DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD BATTERIES......Page 379 12.5.10 MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRONIC WASTES: WASTE COMPUTERS......Page 382 12.5.12 SOLIDIFICATION ( CEMENTATION) TECHNOLOGY FOR HAZARDOUS e-WASTE DISPOSAL......Page 383 REFERENCES......Page 384 CONTENTS......Page 385 13.2.1 OVERVIEW OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MINERAL ORIGINS......Page 387 13.2.2 OVERVIEW OF BEHAVIOR OF AS, CD, CR, PB, AND HG......Page 388 13.4 SOIL CLEANUP GOALS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR REMEDIATION......Page 390 13.5.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 392 13.5.2 SITE REQUIREMENTS......Page 393 13.5.4 PERFORMANCE AND BDAT STATUS......Page 394 13.6 SOLIDIFICATION/ STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES......Page 395 13.6.1.1 Ex Situ, Cement-Based S/S......Page 396 13.6.3 APPLICABILITY......Page 397 13.6.3.2 Polymer Microencapsulation......Page 398 13.6.4 PERFORMANCE......Page 399 13.7.1.1 Ex Situ Vitrification......Page 402 13.7.3 APPLICABILITY......Page 403 13.7.4 PERFORMANCE AND BDAT STATUS......Page 404 13.8.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 405 13.8.2 SITE REQUIREMENTS......Page 407 13.8.4 PERFORMANCE AND BDAT STATUS......Page 408 13.9.2 SITE REQUIREMENTS......Page 409 13.9.4 PERFORMANCE AND BDAT STATUS......Page 410 13.10.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 411 13.10.4 PERFORMANCE AND BDAT STATUS......Page 412 13.11 ELECTROKINETICS......Page 413 13.11.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 414 13.11.3.1 Electrokinetics, Inc.......Page 416 13.11.3.5 Consortium Process......Page 417 13.11.4 PERFORMANCE......Page 418 13.11.4.2 Geokinetics International, Inc.......Page 419 13.11.5 SUMMARY OF ELECTROKINETIC REMEDIATION......Page 420 13.12.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 421 13.12.1.2 Phytostabilization......Page 423 13.12.2 APPLICABILITY......Page 424 13.12.3.1 Performance......Page 425 13.12.3.3 Future Directions......Page 426 13.12.4.2 Waste Characteristics......Page 427 13.13 USE OF TREATMENT TRAINS......Page 428 13.14 COST RANGES OF REMEDIAL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 429 REFERENCES......Page 430 CONTENTS......Page 434 14.1.1 BACKGROUND......Page 435 14.1.2 METALS AND METALLOIDS......Page 436 14.1.3 PURPOSE......Page 437 14.2.2 METAL FINISHING OPERATIONS......Page 438 14.2.2.5 Painting......Page 440 14.2.3.5 Other Considerations......Page 441 14.3.1 THE CENTRAL ROLE OF THE STATE AGENCIES......Page 442 14.3.2 PERFORMING A PHASE I SITE ASSESSMENT: OBTAINING FACILITY BACKGROUND INFORMATION FROM EXISTING DATA......Page 444 14.3.2.2 Other Sources of Recorded Information......Page 445 14.3.4 GATHERING SOIL AND SUBSURFACE INFORMATION......Page 446 14.3.5.1 Identifying Potential Environmental and Human Health Concerns......Page 447 14.3.5.3 Conducting a Site Visit......Page 448 14.3.5.5 Developing a Report......Page 449 14.3.7 PERFORMING A PHASE II SITE ASSESSMENT: SAMPLING THE SITE......Page 450 14.3.7.1 Setting DQOs......Page 451 14.3.7.2 Screening Levels......Page 453 14.3.7.4 Levels of Sampling and Analysis......Page 454 14.3.9.2 Sample Collection and Analysis Technologies......Page 455 14.3.10.1 Where to Sample......Page 457 14.3.10.3 What Types of Analysis to Perform......Page 460 14.3.11.4 Sample Analysis Costs......Page 461 14.4.1 DEVELOPING A CLEANUP......Page 462 14.4.1.2 Containment Technologies......Page 463 14.4.2 KEYS TO TECHNOLOGY SELECTION AND ACCEPTANCE......Page 464 14.4.3 SUMMARY OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR TREATING METALS/METALLOIDS AT BROWNFIELD SITES......Page 466 14.4.4 CLEANUP TECHNOLOGIES OPTIONS FOR METAL FINISHING SITES......Page 467 14.5 CONCLUSION......Page 474 REFERENCES......Page 475 15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 478 15.2.1 LEADED GASOLINE POLLUTION......Page 480 15.2.4 DIESEL ENGINE EMISSION......Page 481 15.2.5 BRAKE LININGS AND TIRES......Page 482 15.3.1 LEADED GASOLINE PHASE- OUT......Page 483 15.3.3 ALTERNATIVE FUELS......Page 485 15.3.4.1 Battery- Powered Electric Vehicles......Page 486 15.3.5 PARTICULATE FILTERS......Page 487 15.3.6 REDUCTION OF METALS IN BRAKE LININGS AND TIRES......Page 488 REFERENCES......Page 489 Discusses the importance and contamination of metals such as lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc, copper, nickel, iron, and mercury. This book covers important research of metals in the environment, the processes and mechanisms for metals control and removal, and heavy metal removal by expopolysaccharide-producing cyanobacteria.