Health and the City : Disease, Environment and Government in Norwich, 1200-1575

An exploration of the health, sanitation, and cleanliness of one of England's most important medieval and early modern cities.In 1559, William Cuningham MD published an image of a quintessentially healthy city. The source of his inspiration was Norwich, one of England's largest and wealthiest provincial boroughs. Though idealized, Cuningham's'map'fairly represented the municipalities'attempts to rebuild and improve the infrastructure. But his image also covered up many problems: Norwich in reality was pocked by decayed housing, deteriorating streets and polluted waterways, andwas home to significant numbers of sick and impoverished residents. This book brings both viewpoints to life. Cuningham's particular brand of'environmental health'imitated ancient ideas (in particular the Hippocratic textAirs, Waters, Places), and drew upon astrology, the study of the weather, and local topography. The book shows that amongst the citizens, a complementary form of medical culture existed that put individuals under the spotlight. It included neighbourhood reactions to illness and disability; the responsibilities of the governing elite for sanitation; and judgments about the lifestyles of different members of the community. Hygiene from this perspective was not only about cleanliness, but also about behaviour, hierarchy, and property. The study draws together a wide range of source materials (including images, medical notebooks and objects, human remains, the corporation's archives, and civic ritual and drama), considering both high and low culture. In 1559, William Cuningham MD published an image of a quintessentially healthy city. The source of his inspiration was Norwich, one of England's largest and wealthiest provincial boroughs. Though idealized, Cuningham's -map- fairly represented the municipalities' attempts to rebuild and improve the infrastructure. But his image also covered up many problems: Norwich in reality was pocked by decayed housing, deteriorating streets and polluted waterways, and was home to significant numbers of sick and impoverished residents. This book brings both viewpoints to life. Cuningham's particular brand of -environmental health- imitated ancient ideas (in particular the Hippocratic text Airs, Waters, Places), and drew upon astrology, the study of the weather, and local topography. The book shows that amongst the citizens, a complementary form of medical culture existed that put individuals under the spotlight. It included neighbourhood reactions to illness and disability; the responsibilities of the governing elite for sanitation; and judgments about the lifestyles of different members of the community. Hygiene from this perspective was not only about cleanliness, but also about behaviour, hierarchy, and property. The study draws together a wide range of source materials (including images, medical notebooks and objects, human remains, the corporation's archives, and civic ritual and drama), considering both high and low culture. List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgements xii List of Abbreviations xiv Introduction: A ‘Healthfull and Pleasant’ City 1 Part I: Health and Place in Texts and Images 27 1. Air and Smell: Hygiene and Networks of Authority in an Urban Context 2. An Epitome of Hygiene: William Cuningham’s Prospect Plan 61 Part II: Health and the Landscape 87 3. Placing Disease in the Urban Landscape: The Osteoarchaeological Evidence 89 4. Placing Health in the Urban Landscape: The Gardens of Norwich 117 Part III: Governing the City and the Self 137 5. Cleaning Up: Reforming the Urban Environment 1300-1570 6. Housing, Self-Management and Healing in the Tudor City 167 Epilogue 189 Appendix I: A note about pathogens and retrospective diagnosis 197 Appendix II: A note about the population of Norwich, 1100–1600 205 Appendix III: A note on the historiography and archaeological record of Norwich 206 Appendix IV: Map of Norwich parishes 209 Bibliography 211 Index 235