Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

The Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations is the first thorough resource manual developed exclusively for water and wastewater plant operators. Now regarded as an industry standard, this fifth edition has been updated throughout, and it explains the material in easy-to-understand language. It also provides real-world case studies and operating scenarios, as well as problem-solving practice sets for each scenario. Key features: Updates the material to reflect the developments in the field Includes new math operations with solutions, as well as over 250 new sample questions Adds updated coverage of energy conservation measures with applicable case studies Enables users to properly operate water and wastewater plants and suggests troubleshooting procedures for returning a plant to optimum operation levels Prepares operators for licensure exams Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Foreword Preface to Fifth Edition Author Part I: Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter 1 Introduction Setting the Stage Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? The Bottom Line Note Chapter 2 Sick Water Introduction The Paradigm Shift A Transformational Change Multiple-Barrier Concept Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations The Bottom Line References Chapter 3 The Challenges Introduction Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations Maintaining Infrastructure Privatization and/or Re-engineering Benchmark It! Upgrading Security Technical vs. Professional Management Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability Autonomous Operations Chapter Review Questions Thought-Provoking Questions (Answers will Vary): Note References Chapter 4 Water/Wastewater Operators Introduction Setting the Record Straight The Digital World Plant Operators as Emergency Responders Operator Duties and Working Conditions Operator Certification and Licensure The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Thought-Provoking Question References Chapter 5 Plant Security Introduction Security Hardware/Devices Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices Water Monitoring Devices Communication and Integration Cyber Protection Devices SCADA What Is SCADA? SCADA Applications in Water and Wastewater Systems SCADA Vulnerabilities The Increasing Risk Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities Cyber Threats to Control Systems Securing Control Systems Steps To Improve SCADA Security The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Thought-Provoking Question References Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater References, Models & Terminology Setting the Stage Treatment Process Models Additional Wastewater Treatment Models Reference References Key Terms, Acronyms, Abbreviations in Water/Wastewater Operations Definitions Acronyms and Abbreviations Chapter Review Questions Part A Part B Part II: Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics & Technical Aspects Chapter 7 Water/Wastewater Math Operations Introduction Calculation Steps Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols Formulae Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median Units and Conversions Force, Pressure, and Head Flow Flow Calculations Detention Time Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours Chemical Dosage Calculations Percent Removal Population Equivalent (PE) or Unit Loading Factor Specific Gravity Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge (Biosolids) Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation Filtration Water Distribution System Calculations Complex Conversions Applied Math Operations Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance Mass Balance for Settling Tanks Mass Balance Using BOD Removal Measuring Plant Performance Water Treatment Math Concepts Water Sources and Storage Calculations Water Source Calculations Water Storage Calculations Copper Sulfate Dosing Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations Sedimentation Calculations Filtration Calculations Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) Filtration Rate Backwash Rate Backwash Rise Rate Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) Backwash Pumping Rate, gpm Percent Product Water Used for Backwatering Percent Mud Ball Volume Filter Bed Expansion Water Chlorination Calculations Chlorine Disinfection Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite Chemical Use Calculations Fluoridation Percent Fluoride Ion in a Compound Fluoride Feed Rate Water Softening Recarbonation Calculation Water Treatment Capacity Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration Wastewater Math Concepts Preliminary Treatment Calculations Screening Grit Removal Primary Treatment Calculations Trickling Filter Process Recirculation Flow Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) Soluble BOD Activated Biosolids Chemical Dosing Biosolids Math Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations Biosolids Dewatering Biosolids to Compost Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations Faucet Flow Estimation Service Line Flushing Time Composite Sampling Calculation Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations Moles and Molarity Moles Settleability (Activated Biosolids) Settleable Solids Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids and Volatile Solids Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids Chapter Review Problems General Math Operations General Wastewater Treatment Problems Back to the Beginning The Bottom Line References Chapter 8 Water Hydraulics Introduction What Is Water Hydraulics? Basic Concepts Stevin's Law Density and Specific Gravity Force and Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure Effects of Water under Pressure Head Static Head Friction Head Velocity Head Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) Pressure and Head Head and Pressure Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion Area and Velocity Pressure and Velocity Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli's Theorem Conservation of Energy Energy Head Piezometric Surface Head Loss Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) Bernoulli's Theorem Bernoulli's Equation Well and Wet Well Hydraulics Well Hydraulics Wet Well Hydraulics Friction Head Loss Flow in Pipelines Major Head Loss Calculating Major Head Loss C Factor Slope Minor Head Loss Basic Piping Hydraulics Piping Networks Open-Channel Flow Characteristics of Open Channel Flow Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow Flow Measurement Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement Flow Measuring Devices Operating Principle Types of Differential Pressure Flowmeters Magnetic Flowmeters Ultrasonic Flowmeters Velocity Flowmeters Open-Channel Flow Measurement The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions References Chapter 9 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps Introduction Basic Pumping Calculations Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline Pressure-Velocity Relationship Static Head Static Suction Head Static Suction Lift Static Discharge Head Friction Head Velocity Head Total Head Conversation of Pressure Head Horsepower Specific Speed Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Pumps in Series and Parallel Centrifugal Pumps Description Terminology Pump Theory Pump Characteristics Advantages and Disadvantages of the Centrifugal Pump Centrifugal Pump Applications Pump Control Systems Electrode Control Systems Other Control Systems Centrifugal Pump Modifications Turbine Pumps Positive Displacement Pumps Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump Diaphragm Pump Peristalic Pumps Chapter Review Questions References Chapter 10 Water/Wastewater Conveyance Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization Conveyance Systems Definitions Fluids vs. Liquids Let's Talk About Pipe Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems Scaling Piping System Maintenance Piping System Accessories Piping System: Temperature Effects and Insulation Metallic Piping Piping Materials Piping: The Basics Types of Piping Systems Metallic Piping Materials Characteristics of Metallic Materials Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping Joining Metallic Pipe Non-metallic Piping Nonmetallic Piping Materials Tubing Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference Advantages of Tubing Mechanical Advantages of Tubing Connecting Tubing Bending Tubing Types of Tubing Typical Tubing Applications Industrial Hoses Hose Nomenclature Factors Governing Hose Selection Standards, Codes, and Sizes Hose Couplings Hose Maintenance Pipe & Tube Fittings Fittings Functions of Fittings Types of Connection Tubing Fittings and Connections Valves Valve Construction Types of Valves Valve Operators Valve Maintenance Piping Systems: Protective Devices Applications Strainers Filters Traps Piping Ancillaries Gauges Pressure Gauges Temperature Gauges Vacuum Breakers Accumulators Air Receivers Heat Exchangers Chapter Review Questions References Part III: Characteristics of Water Chapter 11 Basic Water Chemistry Introduction Chemistry Concepts and Definitions Concepts Definitions Chemistry Fundamentals Matter Compound Substances Water Solutions Water Quality Constituents Solids Turbidity Color Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Metals Organic Matter Inorganic Matter Acids Bases Salts pH Common Water Measurements Alkalinity Water Temperature Specific Conductance Hardness Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment) Water Treatment Chemicals Disinfection Coagulation Taste and Odor Removal Water Softening Chemical Precipitation Ion Exchange Softening Recarbonation Scale and Corrosion Control Drinking Water Parameters: Chemical Organics Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Fluorides Heavy Metals Nutrients The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Note References Chapter 12 Water Microbiology Introduction Microbiology: What Is It? Water/Wastewater Microorganisms Key Terms and Definitions Microorganism Classification and Differentiation Classification Differentiation The Cell Structure of the Bacterial Cell Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) Bacteria Bacterial Growth Factors Destruction of Bacteria Waterborne Bacteria Protozoa Microscopic Crustaceans Viruses Algae Fungi Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms) Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes Pathogenic Protozoa Giardia Cryptosporidium Cyclospora Helminths Wastewater Treatment and Biological Processes Aerobic Process Anaerobic Process Anoxic Process Photosynthesis Growth Cycles Biogeochemical Cycles Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Sulfur Cycle Phosphorus Cycle Chapter Review Questions References Chapter 13 Water Ecology Introduction What Is Ecology? Why Is Ecology Important? Why Study Ecology? Leaf Processing in Streams History of Ecology Example Ecosystem: Agroecosystem Model Levels of Organization Ecosystems Energy Flow in the Ecosystem Food Chain Efficiency Ecological Pyramids Productivity Population Ecology Stream Genesis and Structure Water-Flow in a Stream Stream Water Discharge Transport of Material Characteristics of Stream Channels Stream Profiles Sinuosity Bars, Riffles, and Pools The Floodplain Adaptation to Stream Current Types of Adaptive Changes Specific Adaptations Benthic Life Benthic Plants and Animals Benthic Macroinvertebrates Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Wasters Macroinvertebrate Glossary Insect Macroinvertebrates Non-insect Macroinvertebrates Summary of Key Terms The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions References Chapter 14 Water Quality Introduction The Water Cycle Water Quality Standards Clean Water Act Safe Drinking Water Act Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater Physical Characteristics of Water/Wastewater Chemical Characteristics of Water Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Note References Chapter 15 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing Introduction What Is Biomonitoring? Advantages of Using Periphyton Advantages of Using Fish Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates Periphyton Protocols Fish Protocols Macroinvertebrate Protocols Determining Incremental Change in Aquatic Ecosystems The Biotic Index Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates Biological Condition Gradient Biological Sampling in Streams Biological Sampling: Planning Sampling Stations Sampling Frequency and Notes Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment Post-Sampling Routine Sampling Devices Secchi Disk The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Is the Water Good or Bad? State Water Quality Standards Programs Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program General Preparation and Sampling Considerations Cleaning Procedures Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers Method B: Acid Wash Procedures Sample Types Collecting Samples From a Stream Sample Preservation and Storage Standardization of Methods Test Methods for Drinking Water & Wastewater Titrimetric Methods Colorimetric Methods Visual Methods Electronic Methods Dissolved Oxygen Testing Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing Temperature Measurement Hardness Measurement pH Measurement Turbidity Measurement Orthophosphate Measurement Nitrates Measurement Solids Measurement Conductivity Testing Total Alkalinity Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing Apparent Color Testing/Analysis Odor Analysis of Water Chlorine Residual Testing/Analysis Fluorides The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions References Part IV: Water and Water Treatment Chapter 16 Potable Water Source Introduction Key Terms and Definitions Hydrologic Cycle Sources of Water Surface Water Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water Surface Water Hydrology Raw Water Storage Surface Water Intakes Surface Water Screens Surface Water Quality Groundwater Groundwater Quality Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water Surface Water Quality and Treatment Requirements Stage 1 D/DBP Rule Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (IESWT) Rule Regulatory Deadlines Public Water System Quality Requirements Well Systems Well Site Requirements Type of Wells Well Components Well Evaluation Well Pumps Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements Well Maintenance Troubleshooting Well Problems Well Abandonment The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Chapter 17 Water Treatment Operations Introduction Waterworks Operator (a.k.a. The Fluid Mechanic) Purpose of Water Treatment Stages of Water Treatment Pretreatment Aeration Screening Chemical Addition Chemical Feeders Iron and Manganese Removal Hardness Treatment Corrosion Control Coagulation Mixing and Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Types of Filter Technologies Common Filter Problems Filtration and Compliance with Turbidity Requirements Disinfection Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment Pathogens of Primary Concern Recent Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment Types of Disinfection Byproducts and Disinfection Residuals Disinfection Byproduct Formation Disinfection Strategy Selection CT Factor Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices Summary of Methods of Disinfection Chlorination Hypochlorination Arsenic and Other Removal from Drinking Water Arsenic Exposure Arsenic Removal Technologies The Bottom Line Chapter Review Questions Note References Part V: Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment Chapter 18 Wastewater Treatment Operations Introduction Wastewater Operators (aka Fluid Mechanics) Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model Wastewater Terminology and Definitions Measuring Plant Performance Plant Performance/Efficiency Unit Process Performance and Efficiency Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge Hydraulic Detention Time Wastewater Sources and Characteristics Wastewater Sources Wastewater Characteristics Wastewater Collection Systems Gravity Collection System Force Main Collection System Vacuum System Pumping Stations Wet-Well Pumping Stations Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations Preliminary Treatment Screening Shredding Grit Removal Preaeration Chemical Addition Equalization Aerated Systems Cyclone Degritter Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing Other Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations Primary Treatment (Sedimentation) Process Description Types of Sedimentation Tanks Operator Observations, Process Problems & Troubleshooting Process Control Calculations Problem Analysis Effluent from Settling Tanks Secondary Treatment Treatment Ponds Troubleshooting Wastewater Ponds Trickling Filters Rotating Biological Contractors (RBCs) Activated Sludge Activated Sludge Terminology Activated Sludge Process: Equipment Overview of Activated Sludge Process Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process Growth Curve Activated Sludge Formation Activated Sludge: Performance-Controlling Factors Activated Sludge Modifications Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tank Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observation Process Control Testing and Sampling Symptom 1 Symptom 2 Symptom 3 Symptom 4 Symptom 5 Symptom 6 Symptom 7 Symptom 8 Symptom 9 Symptom 10 Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarifier Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements Disinfection of Wastewater Chlorine Disinfection Symptom 1 Symptom 2 Symptom 3 Symptom 4 Symptom 5 Symptom 6 Symptom 7 Symptom 8 Symptom 9 Symptom 10 Symptom 11 Symptom 12 Symptom 13 Work: Chemical Handling—Chlorine Practice Ultraviolet Irradiation Ozonation Bromine Chloride No Disinfection Advanced Wastewater Treatment Chemical Treatment Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures Microscreening Filtration Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) Biological Nitrification Biological Denitrification Carbon Adsorption Land Application Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal (EBNR) 0.5 MGD Capacity Plant 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant 1.55-MGD Capacity Plant 2 MGD Capacity Plant 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant 3-MGD Capacity Plant 4.8-MGD Capacity Plant 5-MGD Capacity Plant 24-MGD Capacity Plant 39-MGD Capacity Plant 42-MGD Capacity Plant 54-MGD Capacity Plant 67-MGD Capacity Plant Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling Sludge: Background Information Sources of Sludge Sludge Characteristics Sludge Pumping Calculations Sludge Thickening Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting Procedures Indicators of Poor Process Performance Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Sludge Stabilization Step 1: Calculate Volatile Matter Step 2: Calculate Moisture Reduction Symptom 1 Symptom 2 Rotary Vacuum Filtration Pressure Filtration Centrifugation Sludge Incineration Operational Problems Land Application of Biosolids Process Control: Sampling and Testing Process Control Calculations Disposal Cost Plant Available Nitrogen (PAN) Application Rate Based on Crop Nitrogen Requirement Metals Loading Maximum Allowable Applications Based upon Metals Loading Site Life Based on Metals Loading Permits, Records, and Reports Definitions NPDES Permits Sampling and Testing Reporting Calculations Chapter Review Questions References Chapter 19 Practice Examination Exam Appendix A: Answers to Chapter Review Questions/Problems Appendix B: Formulae Index