Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry Vol. 1: Basics of Nuclear Science; Vol. 2: Elements and Isotopes: Formation, Transformation, Distribution; Vol. 3: Chemical Applications of Nuclear Reactions and Radiation; Vol. 4: Radiochemistry and Radiopharmaceutical Chemi

ISBN 9781441907196......Page 1 1 Nuclear and Radiochemistry: the First 100 Years......Page 4 1.1 The Pioneering Years......Page 5 1.2 The Growth Spurt of the 1930s......Page 9 1.2.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 10 1.2.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 11 1.2.3 New Elements......Page 14 1.2.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 15 1.2.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 16 1.3 World War II......Page 17 1.4 The Golden Era......Page 19 1.4.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 20 1.4.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 21 1.4.3 New Elements......Page 23 1.4.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 26 1.4.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 28 1.5 Current Trends......Page 30 References......Page 32 63 Nuclear Safeguards Verification Measurement Techniques......Page 40 54.2.1 Principle and Components of AMS......Page 616 51.3.1 Rayleigh Separation......Page 1269 49.3.2 Solid Systems......Page 45 2.1.2.2 Phenomenological Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials......Page 47 2.1.2.3 Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials from Meson Field Theories......Page 50 53.2 Equipment and Techniques......Page 2077 51.3.3 The Ideal Cascade......Page 2375 52.1.4 Ion-Exchange Theory......Page 2409 2.2.2.2 Electric Moments......Page 54 2.2.2.3 Magnetic Moments......Page 56 2.2.2.4 Experimental Nuclear Moments......Page 57 38.3.2 Neutron Transmission and Activation Rates......Page 58 Charge Radii......Page 59 Mass Radii......Page 60 2.2.3.2 Parity......Page 61 2.2.4 Chart of the Nuclides......Page 62 58.3 Future: A More Radical Picture......Page 2433 54.3.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)......Page 2497 2.3.1.1 Closed Shells in Atomic Nuclei......Page 64 2.3.1.2 Independent-Particle Shell Model......Page 65 2.3.1.3 Shell Model with Multiparticle Configurations......Page 70 2.3.1.4 Shell Model of Deformed Nuclei......Page 71 2.3.1.5 Calculation of the Total Energy of Nuclei......Page 74 15.9.2 Isotope Fractionation in Biological Processes......Page 76 Basic Formulae......Page 78 Selection Rules......Page 80 Single-Particle Transition Rates......Page 81 2.3.2.3 Experimental γ-Ray Transition Rates: Isomeric States......Page 82 62.3.2 Granddaughters and the Detection of Spoofing......Page 85 Even-Even Nuclei......Page 86 Odd-A and Odd-Odd nuclei......Page 89 58.3.3 Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems......Page 521 2.3.4.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 90 Properties of Rotational States......Page 92 Structural Changes Induced by Rotation......Page 93 Rotation of Even-Even Nuclei......Page 94 Rotation of Odd-A Nuclei. Particle-Rotor Model......Page 97 Rotation of Superdeformed and Hyperdeformed Nuclei......Page 100 2.3.5 Interacting Boson Models......Page 102 2.3.6 Clustering......Page 108 2.3.7.1 Effective Interactions......Page 110 2.3.7.2 Few Nucleon Systems, Ab Initio Calculations......Page 111 41.4 Examples of 11C-Labeled Compounds......Page 113 2.4.1.2 One-Body Theory of α Decay......Page 118 2.4.1.3 Microscopic Theories of α Decay......Page 120 Spherical Nuclei......Page 121 Deformed Nuclei......Page 123 2.4.2.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 124 2.4.2.2 Theory of β Decay......Page 128 2.4.2.3 Types of the Weak Interaction......Page 135 2.4.2.5 Parity Nonconservation in β Decay......Page 136 2.4.3 Special Decay Modes......Page 137 20.6 Element 105 (Dubnium)......Page 138 13 Natural Radioactive Decay Chains......Page 144 8.2.1 The Bethe-Bloch Equation......Page 366 39.2.1 Types of Cyclotrons......Page 150 35.1.2 Non-Isotopic Tracers......Page 151 38.2.3 Energy Considerations in Nuclear Reactions......Page 1861 36.3.2 Recommended Dosimetry Reactions......Page 1845 52.1.5 Equipment......Page 157 39.2.6 Yield and Purity......Page 1527 42.5.3 Enzymatic Reactions......Page 2061 9.3 Sums and Products, Error Propagation......Page 162 55.6.2 Categorization of Radiological Emergencies for Planning Intervention......Page 165 41.5.1 General Considerations......Page 170 62.4.4.5 X-Ray Microanalysis......Page 2225 33.2.6 Microbeam......Page 174 3.4.2.1 Nucleon Elastic Scattering......Page 178 3.4.2.2 Heavy-Ion Elastic Scattering......Page 180 30.5.3 Application of RNAA in Materials Science......Page 181 25.3.3 Spectrum Evaluation......Page 1425 62.4.6.1 General and Applications......Page 2870 18.1.1.3 Americium (Am) and Curium (Cm)......Page 188 41.2.3.2 Isotopic Dilution - Labeling Synthesis......Page 1982 57.3.6.2 The Supercritical State......Page 190 62.4.3.3 Tritium Analysis......Page 2861 23.5 G-Value, Absorbed Dose......Page 698 3.5.1 Preliminaries......Page 193 3.5.2 The Hauser-Feshbach Treatment of Particle Emission......Page 194 3.5.3 The Transition-State Treatment of CN Decay......Page 195 3.5.4 The Density of States of Highly Excited Nuclei......Page 196 3.5.5 Thermodynamic Models for Multifragmentation......Page 197 24.6 Hot Atom Reaction in Solid Phase......Page 199 3.6.1 Reactions Near the Fermi Energy......Page 202 3.6.2 Models of Collision Dynamics......Page 203 3.6.3 Participant-Spectator Reactions......Page 205 3.6.4 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions: Dense Nuclear Matter......Page 206 3.7.1 Background and Connection to Classical Thermodynamics......Page 208 3.7.2 The Perspective from Energy-Density-Functional Theory......Page 210 3.7.3 The Incompressibility from the Physical LDM-Like Expansion......Page 211 3.7.4 Cluster Formation at Very Low Density......Page 213 3.7.5 Multifragmentation: The Low-Density Regime and the Manifestation of the Liquid-Gas Phase Transition in Nuclear Collisi......Page 214 3.8 Addendum: Cross-Section Calculations......Page 217 3.9 Selected Nuclear Reaction Web Resources......Page 219 References......Page 220 4 Nuclear Fission......Page 224 53.1 Introduction......Page 1463 47.2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Biological Substances on Molecular, Cellular, and Tissue Levels......Page 1468 56.1.1 X- and Gamma-Ray Sources......Page 1799 12.2.2 Origin of the Matter-AntimatterMatter-antimatter asymmetry Asymmetry......Page 227 7.4.1 General Kinetics of Decay Chains......Page 343 16.1.4 Working Standards (PDB, SMOW, SNOW, SLAP)......Page 732 55.5.1 Exposure to Natural Sources......Page 2527 4.2.6 Missed Opportunities......Page 232 41.3 Methods for 11C-Syntheses......Page 693 4.3.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 233 60.5.7 Other PWI Processes......Page 2788 42.5.4 Electrochemical Cells......Page 235 59.2.1.1 Thermoelectric Nuclear Power Systems......Page 237 31.4.5 Neutron Shutter, Beam Tube, Sample Holder, and Beam Stop......Page 1634 4.3.5 The Shell Model......Page 240 4.3.6 The Combination of the Liquid Drop Model and the Shell Model According to Strutinsky......Page 243 57.4 Specific Nuclear Reactors and Other Nuclear Devices......Page 245 5.5.2.2 The Innermost Barrier of Uranium Isotopes......Page 246 55.3.1.3 Fish......Page 2511 4.4.3 Nuclear Charge Distribution......Page 263 12.2.1.4 Dark Energy, the Accelerating Universe, and the Problem of Distance Measurements......Page 622 58.2.3.1 Self-Consistent Nuclear Energy System (SCNES)......Page 267 8.3.6.2 Transition Radiation......Page 384 4.4.4 Ternary Fission......Page 271 33.3.3 Instrumentation......Page 273 29.3.1.2 Single-Crystal Neutron Diffraction, ``Ab Initio´´ Structure Determination......Page 1528 4.4.5.3 Level Densities in the Isomers......Page 277 39.5 Production of Therapeutic Radionuclides......Page 278 56 Appendix - Reference Data to Part V......Page 1034 11.1.1 The SI Units of Measurement......Page 335 5.2.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 284 54.2.2 Protocols of Sample Preparation and Measurements......Page 285 62.3 Radionuclide Chronometry......Page 289 62.4.4.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2198 40.2.2 Generators with Potential Medical Application......Page 291 55.4 Environmental Transport of Radioactive Effluents; Routine and Accidental Releases......Page 292 43.3.3 Agents for Renal Function......Page 718 28.4.2 Coulomb Capture Ratios......Page 1496 62.5 Special Nuclear Materials......Page 2872 42.3.1.3 Electrophilic [18F]F2 from n.c.a. [18F]F-......Page 379 35.4.2 Gamma-Ray Measurements......Page 301 5.5.2.1 The Depth of the Third Minimum in 236U......Page 304 5.5.3 Hyperdeformed Rotational Bands in 234U......Page 306 63.3.3.2 Low-Resolution Gamma Spectroscopy (LRGS)......Page 2911 5.5.4 Subbarrier Fission Resonances and Transitional States Observed in 232U......Page 312 5.6 The Fission-Barrier Landscape......Page 316 References......Page 363 48.8 Editors´ Notes......Page 318 49 Dosimetry Methods......Page 320 61.1 Radioactive Wastes......Page 321 6.2 Basics of Nuclear Physics......Page 322 57.3 General Principles of Reactor Design......Page 2123 24.4 Hot Atom Reactions in Gaseous Phase......Page 463 55.5 Sources of the Effective Dose to the Population in the Environment......Page 1013 References......Page 2064 30.7 Location Sensitive Analysis......Page 333 46 Radionuclide Therapy......Page 334 55.3.2 Terrestrial Environment......Page 1464 58.2 Future: The Extrapolation of Past and Present......Page 1860 33.4 Editors´ Note......Page 1732 51.3.4 Equilibrium Time......Page 347 13.3.1 Approach to Equilibrium......Page 676 7.5 Decay Constant (Half-Life) Systematics......Page 354 51.4.2 Thermal Diffusion......Page 2379 9.3.2 The Central Limit Theorem ......Page 357 7.5.3 Gamma Decay ......Page 360 57.3.7 Critical Size......Page 362 60.6 Prospects of Practical Application......Page 2790 8 Interaction of Radiation with Matter......Page 364 48.2 General Properties of Detectors......Page 2261 25.1.2 Thermal Broadening: γ Emission and Absorption in Gases......Page 371 42.3.1 Electrophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 373 8.2.4 Fluctuations in the energy loss......Page 374 58.2.5 High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR)......Page 375 13.3.2 Branching Decay......Page 677 60.3 Basic Schemes of Magnetic Confinement......Page 2766 8.3.1 Energy Loss of Electrons by Ionization......Page 377 27.1.3.1 Thermalization of Positrons......Page 1465 12.2.1.2 Inflationary Interpretation of the CMBR......Page 619 8.3.2.4 Radiation Length......Page 380 62.3.3 Detection of Incomplete Fuel Reprocessing......Page 381 8.3.5 Absorption of β Radiation......Page 382 33.1.4.2 Deducing Concentrations......Page 383 17.4 Cosmogenic Radionuclides......Page 414 44.6.2 Radioiododehalogenation......Page 747 52.3.3 Uranium Isotope Enrichment......Page 2422 8.4.3 Photoelectric Effect......Page 388 30.5.5 Application of RNAA for the Determination of Radionuclides......Page 788 43.6.4 Vitamins: Folate, Biotin, and B12......Page 2110 8.4.6 Photon Attenuation......Page 390 60.5 Plasma-Wall Interaction in Nuclear Fusion Devices......Page 909 8.5.2 Auger Effect......Page 391 References......Page 1931 55.1 Introduction......Page 398 57.2.2 First Attempts to Build Artificial Reactors......Page 2620 46.3.1 Beta-Particle-Emitting Radionuclides......Page 674 60.5.3 Chemical Erosion......Page 2782 24.6.1 Appearance Energy......Page 408 9.3.3 Convolution and Deconvolution......Page 410 23.5.4 Pulse Dosimetry......Page 984 9.4.2 Binomial Distribution : B(n, p)......Page 415 58.2.2.1 Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy......Page 1308 25.3.2 Pattern Analysis......Page 1423 9.4.3.1 Properties......Page 419 9.4.4 Exponential DistributionDistribution : gamma (1, lamda )......Page 421 61.1.1.4 High-Level Waste (HLW)......Page 2800 9.4.4.2 Exponential Law in a Binomial Way ......Page 425 9.4.4.3 The Poisson Connection......Page 427 61.5.5 Transmutation Devices for the Advanced Fuel Cycle......Page 431 31.6.3.1 Energy Resolution......Page 432 9.4.6 Normal Distribution : N(mu , sigma 2)......Page 433 9.4.6.1 Properties......Page 436 9.4.7 The chi2 Distribution : chi2(k)......Page 437 9.4.7.1 Properties......Page 438 62.5.3 Nuclear Reactors and the Production of Plutonium and 233U......Page 2877 50.1.6.1 Radioactive-Ion Sources......Page 2334 44.5 Rating of Radioiodination Methods......Page 2136 9.5.1 Renewal Processes ......Page 443 62.4.4.4 Electron Microprobe Analysis......Page 444 Indoors......Page 2530 9.5.1.3 The ``Primeval´´ Shape of the Photoelectric Peak ......Page 446 9.5.1.4 Statistical Effects Smearing the Photoelectric Peak ......Page 447 23.10.1 DNA and Its Constituents......Page 1311 9.5.2.1 Branching Processes ......Page 448 9.6 Fitting Nuclear Spectra ......Page 449 62.6.1 Overview......Page 2884 9.6.2 The Maximum Likelihood Principle ......Page 450 17.19.1 Fictitious Isochrons in the Rift Valley......Page 451 9.6.4 Weighted Least Squares Method in Nuclear Spectroscopy ......Page 452 20.7 Element 106 (Seaborgium)......Page 970 References......Page 455 References......Page 456 29 Neutron Scattering Methods in Chemistry......Page 458 51.1 Introduction......Page 2371 18.2.1 Actinide Concept......Page 847 45.3 Examples of Radiometal-Chelate-Biomolecule Conjugates......Page 2165 16.7 Quantifying Isotopic Chronostratigraphy......Page 467 59.2.2 Nuclear Power Propulsions......Page 470 References......Page 471 References......Page 474 14 RadioelementsRadioelements......Page 690 11.1 The International System of Units (SI)......Page 477 46.2.1.1 Geometrical Considerations......Page 478 58.2.2 Requirements on the Advanced Nuclear Energy System......Page 479 11.2 Fundamental Physical Constants......Page 482 50.1.4 Production of Ions from NonGaseous Materials......Page 2329 12.3 Primordial NucleosynthesisNUCLEOSYNTHESIS......Page 488 11.4 Atomic Data......Page 505 25.2.2 Quadrupole Splitting......Page 1408 57.3.6 Reactor Kinetics......Page 511 18.2.5 XAFS: New Methodology for Chemical Studies of Transuranium Elements......Page 516 39.6 Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 541 References......Page 610 12 Origin of the Chemical Elements......Page 614 12.2.1.1 Observations of CMBR......Page 617 58.2.2.3 Effective Utilization of Resources and Environmental Preservation......Page 2670 43.3 Commercial 99mTc-Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 1626 13.1.4 4n + 1 Chain......Page 629 12.3.1 Weak DecouplingWeak decoupling......Page 630 60.5.5 Redeposition and Co-Deposition......Page 2785 40.3.1 Overview......Page 635 54.2.1.5 Ion Detector......Page 638 49.4.1.1 Principles of Calorimetry......Page 2308 12.4.1.3 SupernovaSupernova explosions Explosions......Page 640 12.4.1.4 Core-Collapse SupernovaeSupernovatype II......Page 641 12.4.2 Hydrogen BurningHydrogen burning: Proton-Proton ChainProton-proton chain, CNO-CycleCNO cycle......Page 642 38.3.7 General Equations Governing the Reactor Production of Radionuclides......Page 1878 61.4.3 Direct Disposal of High-Level Waste......Page 1576 12.4.5 NucleosynthesisNucleosynthesisof heavy elements Beyond Fe......Page 649 49.4.1.4 Dosimetry at Low-Energy Electron Irradiation......Page 2312 29.4.1.1 Description of the Liquid StructureLiquid structure, Based on Experimentally Available Quantities......Page 652 45.5 Outlook......Page 653 16.8.2 The Eocene Ocean......Page 752 12.5.4 X-ray BurstsX-ray burst and the rp-Processrp-process......Page 656 63.3.4.1 Neutron Detectors......Page 2915 35.6.2 Production of Radioactive Multitracers......Page 1773 12.6.1 Experiments and Observations......Page 658 12.6.3 Meteoritic Inclusions......Page 660 12.6.4 Galactical Chemical EvolutionChemical evolutionof a galaxy: Putting it all Together......Page 662 48.7 Composite Detectors......Page 776 59.1 Introduction......Page 669 45.2.1 Role of the Chelator in the Design of Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 672 33.2.1 Theoretical Background......Page 1712 34.3 Id18f: A Dedicated X-Ray Microprobe End-Station......Page 703 62.2.4 Reagent Blanks......Page 2851 39.3.2 Non-Standard Positron Emitters......Page 1919 References......Page 679 58.3.2 Fast Reactors with a Closed Fuel Cycle as a Basis of Large-Scale Nuclear Power......Page 2704 13.4.2 Gamma Rays......Page 680 51.5.2 Dual Temperature Exchange: The GS Process......Page 987 43.5 Strategies for the Labeling of Targeting Molecules......Page 687 17.6 Fission Track Dating......Page 775 62.1.1 Nuclear Smuggling......Page 2760 28.4 Theory of Exotic Atoms......Page 695 Acknowledgment......Page 699 15 Isotope Effects......Page 700 39.1 Introduction......Page 1904 34.2 Synchrotron Micro- and Nanoscopic X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis......Page 702 61.4 The ``Back-End´´ of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 705 41.2.2 Synthetic Considerations......Page 707 15.5.1 Vapor Pressure Isotope Effects......Page 709 15.5.2 Isotope Effects on Other Phase Equilibria......Page 712 References......Page 714 53.7 Conclusion......Page 2454 15.8 Mass-Independent Isotope Effects......Page 720 References......Page 721 27.3.1 Construction of Positron Sources......Page 722 References......Page 724 37 Introduction to the Fourth Volume......Page 1620 46.1 Introduction......Page 2180 48.3.1 Ionization Chambers......Page 2262 16.1.2 First Carbonate/Water Paleotemperature Scale......Page 731 41.2 Radiotracer Synthesis......Page 733 16.2.1 Basic Considerations......Page 735 16.2.2 Dole Effect and the Meteoric Water Line......Page 736 50.3 RF-Based and AC-Voltage Accelerators......Page 738 52.2.4 Studies of Plutonium Speciation......Page 2004 48.4 Semiconductors......Page 2170 16.4.2 Carbon Cycle Changes......Page 743 55.6 Measures in Nuclear Emergency......Page 745 16.6.3 Pleistocene/Holocene Climatic Changes......Page 748 16.8 Time´s Arrow Reversed: Pliocene Paleoclimates......Page 751 51.6.2 Isotope Separation by Redox Ion-Exchange Chromatography......Page 754 16.8.5 Isotopes as Mesozoic Climate Indicators......Page 755 30.6.3 Validation......Page 756 25.4.5 Emission Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1434 16.8.8 The Precambrian Eons......Page 758 16.8.8.1 Archean/Proterozoic Transition......Page 759 References......Page 760 59 Nuclear Power Sources for Space Systems......Page 2403 42.1 Introduction......Page 1035 17.2 Argon/Argon......Page 766 17.2.1 Incremental Heating......Page 767 30.2.2 Activation Equation......Page 1560 34.6.2 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy: XANES and EXAFS......Page 1756 44.3.5 Direct Radioiodination......Page 2128 47.4.2 Internal Pathways......Page 2228 38.3.4 Neutron Energy Dependence of Cross Sections......Page 1875 38.3.5 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors......Page 1766 31.4.4 Neutron Absorbers and Shielding Materials......Page 1633 63.5 Environmental Sampling and Analysis to Verify the Completeness of State Declarations......Page 774 31.8.1 Absolute Approach......Page 1654 17.9 Lutetium/Hafnium......Page 777 17.12 Osmium/Osmium......Page 778 17.13 Pleochroic Haloes......Page 779 17.14 Polonium/Lead......Page 780 17.15 Potassium/Argon......Page 782 17.16 Potassium/Calcium......Page 784 17.17 Radiocarbon (Carbon-14)......Page 785 31.5.1 Sample Size and Shape......Page 786 17.17.3 Radiocarbon in Dead Animals and Plants......Page 787 31.6.3 Calibration Procedures......Page 1643 17.17.8 Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon......Page 789 17.17.9 Radiocarbon and Dating Groundwaters......Page 790 17.18 Rhenium/Osmium......Page 791 17.19 Rubidium/Strontium......Page 792 17.19.3 Some Caveats......Page 795 17.20 Samarium/Neodymium......Page 796 17.21 Thermoluminescence (TL)......Page 797 17.22 Tritium......Page 798 17.22.1 Dating Using Tritium and Tritogenic 3He......Page 799 17.22.2 A Danubian Application of the Tritium/3He Dating Method......Page 800 17.23.1 Ionium (230Th)......Page 801 17.23.3 Lead-210......Page 802 17.23.4 Snow, Ice, and Volcanoes......Page 803 17.23.6 The Uranium-234, Uranium-238 Geochronometer......Page 804 17.24 Uranium/Thorium/Lead......Page 805 17.24.1 Radioactive Series......Page 806 17.24.2 Concordia and Discordia......Page 808 17.24.3 Common Lead......Page 810 17.24.4 The Holmes/Houtermans Model......Page 811 17.24.5 Anomalous Lead......Page 812 17.24.6 Multistage Leads......Page 813 17.25 Uranium/Xenon, Uranium/Krypton......Page 814 17.25.1 Pitchblendes......Page 815 Further Reading......Page 816 43 99mTc: Labeling Chemistry and Labeled Compounds......Page 2073 18.1.1.1 Neptunium (Np)......Page 819 62.1.3.2 Pre-det and Post-det......Page 2322 59.2.2.2 The Russian Concept of the Model NPP Designs......Page 821 27.2.3.3 Chemical Reactions......Page 1471 57.3.6.3 The Critical State......Page 2635 18.1.1.7 Nobelium (No) and Lawrencium (Lr)......Page 823 60.5.1 Basic PSI Processes......Page 1011 18.1.2.1 Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 824 54.2.3.1 10Be......Page 827 54.2.3 Importance of Cosmogenic and SN Radionuclides and the Required Chemistry for AMS Analysis......Page 2475 33.3.3.2 Ion-Gamma Reactions......Page 1726 18.1.4.3 Spontaneous Fission......Page 842 18.1.4.4 Progress in Two-Mode Fission......Page 846 42.5.1 Microwave Applications in Radiolabeling......Page 850 61.5.5.1 Future of P&T......Page 2831 18.2.3.2 Solvent Extraction Separation......Page 853 18.2.6 Computational Chemistry of Transuranium Elements......Page 866 References......Page 869 61 Radioactive Waste Management......Page 878 62.1 Introduction......Page 879 19.2 A Brief History of Discoveries......Page 883 39.3 Production of Positron Emitters......Page 893 28.3.2 Muon Polarization, Surface Muons......Page 1490 43.3.1 Myocardial Imaging Agents......Page 1390 63.2.5 Material Balance Area and Measurement Points......Page 899 19.4 Nuclear Structure of the TransactinideTransactinidesNuclear Structure of Nuclides......Page 900 61.3.5 Commercial Nuclear Power Generation......Page 902 50.2.1 Principles of Direct Voltage Accelerators......Page 903 19.5.2 Experiment......Page 911 19.5.3 Future Perspectives......Page 916 41.6 Quality Control of 11C-Compounds......Page 2012 57.7 Editors´ Notes......Page 920 62 Nuclear Forensic Materials and Methods......Page 926 50.2.2 Accelerator Configurations......Page 2338 51.3.2 Simple and Countercurrent Cascades......Page 2373 56.1.2 Electron and Alpha Sources......Page 934 20.5 Element 104 (Rutherfordium)......Page 944 62.4.3.2 Particle Detection......Page 1983 39.2.5 Chemical Processing of the Irradiated Material......Page 1911 33.1.6 Fields of Application......Page 1711 35.3.3 Purity......Page 1569 52.2.3 Studies in Complex Chemistry......Page 1473 55.6.1 Averted Dose and Action Levels......Page 973 35.4.5 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry......Page 1369 20.10 Element 112 (Copernicium)......Page 991 50.3.3 Focusing the Particle Beam......Page 2357 35.11 Industrial Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 995 20.12 Editors´ Notes......Page 996 References......Page 997 46.2 Design of Targeted Radiotherapeutics......Page 1010 21.3 Summary of Results to 1978......Page 1012 References......Page 1534 21.6.1 1999-2003......Page 1016 21.6.2 2004-2009......Page 1018 41.7 11C as a Tool in Chemistry Research......Page 1024 23 Radiation Chemistry......Page 1266 54.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)......Page 2372 52.1.2 Extraction Systems......Page 2407 61.3.1 Uranium Mining and Milling......Page 2672 23.4.2 Pulse Radiolysis, Technical Realization, and Detection Systems......Page 1278 43.3.4 Agents for Other Applications......Page 1282 62.3.1 Chronometry Versus Age-Dating......Page 2852 23.5.3 Dosimetry of gamma-Ray and Electron Irradiation......Page 1283 57.4.2 Reactors for Power Stations......Page 1285 63.2.13.1 Nondestructive Assay......Page 2903 23.6.3 Water as Reactor Coolant......Page 1290 51.7 Photochemical and Laser Isotope Separation......Page 2397 23.7.1 Ice......Page 1292 Acknowledgments......Page 2660 23.8.1 Saturated, Unsaturated, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1294 28.6.1 Study of Nuclear Structure......Page 1300 23.8.3 Ionic Liquids......Page 1301 References......Page 1302 23.9.1 Polymerization, Kinetics, and Mechanism......Page 1303 63.3.6 Unattended NDA Systems......Page 1307 35.7.3 Exchange Reactions......Page 1312 23.10.4 Lipids......Page 1313 25.4.9 Time-Dependent Measurements......Page 1314 23.11.2 Applications of Radiation Chemistry to Nuclear Technology:The Purex Process......Page 1316 23.11.3 Radiation Processing......Page 1318 62.2 Chemical Aspects of Nuclear Forensic Science......Page 2843 42.3.2.1 Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitutions......Page 1397 23.12 Editors' Note......Page 1327 References......Page 1328 51 Isotope Separation......Page 1695 63.1 Introduction......Page 2896 52.2 Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange in Small-Scale Nuclear Chemistry......Page 1338 50.1.1 The Plasma Physics of Ion Sources......Page 2321 62.1.2 Historic Considerations......Page 2840 24.3 Enrichment of Radioisotopes by The Szilard-Chalmers Processes......Page 1343 36.3.1 Status of 14 MeV and 3 MeV Neutron Cross Sections......Page 1835 24.4.2 Halogens......Page 1357 24.4.3 Carbon......Page 1360 48.5 Scintillators......Page 1361 38.3.6 Cross Section Measurements and Flux Monitoring......Page 1877 41.4.3 Compounds for Study of Enzymes and Receptors......Page 2005 24.8 Other Topics in Hot Atom Chemistry......Page 1371 44.4.5 Heterobifunctional Reagents......Page 1880 55.3.1.1 Oceans......Page 1372 24.8.3.2 Molecular Rocket......Page 1374 24.8.4 Impact of Hot Atom Chemistry on Other Research Fields......Page 1377 39 Cyclotron Production of Medical Radionuclides......Page 1380 25.1.1 Isomeric Transition Between Nuclear Levels......Page 1383 25.1.3.1 Conditions of Nuclear Resonance Absorption......Page 1386 25.1.3.2 Lattice Vibrations......Page 1387 33.1.3.3 Micro PIXE Facilities......Page 1389 25.1.5 Hyperfine Interactions......Page 1396 25.1.5.2 Electric Quadrupole Interaction......Page 1401 58.2.3.2 Fast Reactor and Related Fuel Cycle......Page 1403 41.3.3.1 General......Page 1404 25.2.1.1 Chemical Isomer Shift......Page 1405 61.2 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 2288 57.4.2.4 The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)......Page 2648 25.2.3 Magnetic Splitting......Page 1409 33.2.3 Elastic Recoil Detection, ERD......Page 1412 25.2.5 The f-Factor......Page 1413 63.2.11 Detection Probability......Page 1500 25.2.7 Mössbauer Parameters and Experimental Parameters......Page 1415 27.3.3.5 AMOC......Page 1481 61.5.4.2 Aqueous Schemes for the Separation of Minor Actinides from HLW from PUREX......Page 2826 61.5.4.3 Advantages of Nonaqueous Processes for Partitioning and Transmutation......Page 1418 25.2.7.5 Angular Dependence of Peak Areas/Intensities......Page 1419 47.4.3.1 Factors to Reduce Exposure from External Sources......Page 1421 25.3.1 The Fingerprint Method......Page 1422 25.3.4 Quantitative Analysis......Page 1428 52.4 Acronyms......Page 2426 52.3.4 Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuel......Page 2423 25.4.3 Reflection Geometry......Page 1430 25.4.3.1 Conversion Electron Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1431 Detectors for CEMS......Page 1432 Depth Selective CEMS......Page 1433 25.4.5.1 Aftereffects......Page 1435 25.4.8 Capillary Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1436 25.4.12 Sources and Absorbers......Page 1437 25.4.13 Cryostates, Furnaces, Magnets, and Pressure Cells......Page 1439 41.5 PET in Drug Development......Page 2010 25.5.1 Applications in Nuclear Sciences......Page 1440 25.5.2 Chemical and Analytical Applications......Page 1441 References......Page 1444 26 Mössbauer Excitation by Synchrotron Radiation......Page 1448 30.1 Introduction......Page 1449 26.2 Nuclear Resonant Elastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Elastic Scattering......Page 1450 26.3 Nuclear Resonant Inelastic and Quasi-Elastic ScatteringQuasi-Elastic ScatteringInelastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Inelas......Page 1455 54.4 Conclusion and Future Scope......Page 1460 53 Radiochemical Separations by Thermochromatography......Page 1462 63.2.3 Significant Quantity......Page 2522 41.2.2.2 Reaction Kinetics......Page 1981 42.3.2 Nucleophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 2032 63.3.3.1 Gamma Ray Detectors......Page 1470 27.3.3.1 Positron Lifetime Spectroscopy......Page 1474 27.3.3.2 Angular Correlation of Annihilation Radiation......Page 1476 27.3.3.3 Doppler-Broadening Spectroscopy......Page 1478 41.3.3.4 Carbonylations......Page 1480 39.4 Production of Photon Emitters......Page 1924 35.4.3 Beta-Ray Measurements......Page 1769 27.4.2 Polymers......Page 1483 61.5.1 Transmutation of Minor Actinides......Page 2819 28.1 Introduction......Page 1488 59.2.1 Onboard Reactor Power Sources......Page 2023 39.2.3.2 Targets for Irradiations with Extracted Beams......Page 1908 28.3.4 Applications in Solid-State Physics and Chemistry......Page 1492 28.3.5 The Anomalous Magnetic Moment of the Muon......Page 1495 55.5.2 Medical Exposure......Page 2533 28.4.5 Exotic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1499 29.5.1.1 Reactor SourcesReactor sources......Page 1543 47.7.2 Cytogenetic Assays......Page 1501 51.6.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 2361 28.6.2 Pionic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1504 28.6.2.1 Principle of Study......Page 1505 61.1.1.2 Low-Level Waste (LLW)......Page 2219 60.5.2 Physical Sputtering......Page 2326 28.6.2.4 Development of the LMM Model......Page 1507 33.3.4 Quantitative Elemental Analysis......Page 1606 46.2.2.2 Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 2187 28.6.3.2 Long-Lived Antiprotonic Helium......Page 1508 References......Page 1512 29.1.2 Comparison with X-ray ScatteringX-ray scattering......Page 1519 56.2 Fission Product Yields......Page 2575 29.2.1.3 The Scattering LengthScattering length......Page 1520 54.2.1.2 Tandem Accelerator......Page 2466 62.2.1 Commonly Used Chemical Methods in the Radiochemical Forensic Laboratory......Page 1521 29.2.2.2 Coherent and Incoherent ScatteringIncoherent scatteringCoherent and incoherent scattering......Page 1523 29.2.2.3 Correlation FunctionsCorrelation functionsfor nuclear scattering for Nuclear ScatteringNuclear scatteringcorrelation f......Page 1524 55.3.2.2 Soil......Page 2330 61.4.2.4 Recycling U......Page 2816 29.3.1.4 Time-of-Flight (TOF)Time-of-flight (TOF) Variants of Neutron DiffractionNeutron diffractionTime-of-flight (TOF) Method......Page 1532 60.5.6 Edge Plasmas in Magnetically Confined Fusion Devices......Page 1915 29.4.1.2 Determination of the Radial Distribution Function from Neutron Diffraction of Liquids......Page 1536 29.4.2 Microscopic Dynamics in Liquids......Page 1538 58.2.5.1 Features of HTGR......Page 1539 61.4.2 Fuel Reprocessing......Page 2811 48.5.3 Liquid Scintillators......Page 2281 53.5 Preparative Radiochemistry..... ISBN 9781441907196......Page 1 1 Nuclear and Radiochemistry: the First 100 Years......Page 4 1.1 The Pioneering Years......Page 5 1.2 The Growth Spurt of the 1930s......Page 9 1.2.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 10 1.2.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 11 1.2.3 New Elements......Page 14 1.2.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 15 1.2.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 16 1.3 World War II......Page 17 1.4 The Golden Era......Page 19 1.4.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 20 1.4.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 21 1.4.3 New Elements......Page 23 1.4.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 26 1.4.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 28 1.5 Current Trends......Page 30 References......Page 32 63 Nuclear Safeguards Verification Measurement Techniques......Page 40 54.2.1 Principle and Components of AMS......Page 616 51.3.1 Rayleigh Separation......Page 1269 49.3.2 Solid Systems......Page 45 2.1.2.2 Phenomenological Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials......Page 47 2.1.2.3 Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials from Meson Field Theories......Page 50 53.2 Equipment and Techniques......Page 2077 51.3.3 The Ideal Cascade......Page 2375 52.1.4 Ion-Exchange Theory......Page 2409 2.2.2.2 Electric Moments......Page 54 2.2.2.3 Magnetic Moments......Page 56 2.2.2.4 Experimental Nuclear Moments......Page 57 38.3.2 Neutron Transmission and Activation Rates......Page 58 Charge Radii......Page 59 Mass Radii......Page 60 2.2.3.2 Parity......Page 61 2.2.4 Chart of the Nuclides......Page 62 58.3 Future: A More Radical Picture......Page 2433 54.3.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)......Page 2497 2.3.1.1 Closed Shells in Atomic Nuclei......Page 64 2.3.1.2 Independent-Particle Shell Model......Page 65 2.3.1.3 Shell Model with Multiparticle Configurations......Page 70 2.3.1.4 Shell Model of Deformed Nuclei......Page 71 2.3.1.5 Calculation of the Total Energy of Nuclei......Page 74 15.9.2 Isotope Fractionation in Biological Processes......Page 76 Basic Formulae......Page 78 Selection Rules......Page 80 Single-Particle Transition Rates......Page 81 2.3.2.3 Experimental γ-Ray Transition Rates: Isomeric States......Page 82 62.3.2 Granddaughters and the Detection of Spoofing......Page 85 Even-Even Nuclei......Page 86 Odd-A and Odd-Odd nuclei......Page 89 58.3.3 Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems......Page 521 2.3.4.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 90 Properties of Rotational States......Page 92 Structural Changes Induced by Rotation......Page 93 Rotation of Even-Even Nuclei......Page 94 Rotation of Odd-A Nuclei. Particle-Rotor Model......Page 97 Rotation of Superdeformed and Hyperdeformed Nuclei......Page 100 2.3.5 Interacting Boson Models......Page 102 2.3.6 Clustering......Page 108 2.3.7.1 Effective Interactions......Page 110 2.3.7.2 Few Nucleon Systems, Ab Initio Calculations......Page 111 41.4 Examples of 11C-Labeled Compounds......Page 113 2.4.1.2 One-Body Theory of α Decay......Page 118 2.4.1.3 Microscopic Theories of α Decay......Page 120 Spherical Nuclei......Page 121 Deformed Nuclei......Page 123 2.4.2.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 124 2.4.2.2 Theory of β Decay......Page 128 2.4.2.3 Types of the Weak Interaction......Page 135 2.4.2.5 Parity Nonconservation in β Decay......Page 136 2.4.3 Special Decay Modes......Page 137 20.6 Element 105 (Dubnium)......Page 138 13 Natural Radioactive Decay Chains......Page 144 8.2.1 The Bethe-Bloch Equation......Page 366 39.2.1 Types of Cyclotrons......Page 150 35.1.2 Non-Isotopic Tracers......Page 151 38.2.3 Energy Considerations in Nuclear Reactions......Page 1861 36.3.2 Recommended Dosimetry Reactions......Page 1845 52.1.5 Equipment......Page 157 39.2.6 Yield and Purity......Page 1527 42.5.3 Enzymatic Reactions......Page 2061 9.3 Sums and Products, Error Propagation......Page 162 55.6.2 Categorization of Radiological Emergencies for Planning Intervention......Page 165 41.5.1 General Considerations......Page 170 62.4.4.5 X-Ray Microanalysis......Page 2225 33.2.6 Microbeam......Page 174 3.4.2.1 Nucleon Elastic Scattering......Page 178 3.4.2.2 Heavy-Ion Elastic Scattering......Page 180 30.5.3 Application of RNAA in Materials Science......Page 181 25.3.3 Spectrum Evaluation......Page 1425 62.4.6.1 General and Applications......Page 2870 18.1.1.3 Americium (Am) and Curium (Cm)......Page 188 41.2.3.2 Isotopic Dilution - Labeling Synthesis......Page 1982 57.3.6.2 The Supercritical State......Page 190 62.4.3.3 Tritium Analysis......Page 2861 23.5 G-Value, Absorbed Dose......Page 698 3.5.1 Preliminaries......Page 193 3.5.2 The Hauser-Feshbach Treatment of Particle Emission......Page 194 3.5.3 The Transition-State Treatment of CN Decay......Page 195 3.5.4 The Density of States of Highly Excited Nuclei......Page 196 3.5.5 Thermodynamic Models for Multifragmentation......Page 197 24.6 Hot Atom Reaction in Solid Phase......Page 199 3.6.1 Reactions Near the Fermi Energy......Page 202 3.6.2 Models of Collision Dynamics......Page 203 3.6.3 Participant-Spectator Reactions......Page 205 3.6.4 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions: Dense Nuclear Matter......Page 206 3.7.1 Background and Connection to Classical Thermodynamics......Page 208 3.7.2 The Perspective from Energy-Density-Functional Theory......Page 210 3.7.3 The Incompressibility from the Physical LDM-Like Expansion......Page 211 3.7.4 Cluster Formation at Very Low Density......Page 213 3.7.5 Multifragmentation: The Low-Density Regime and the Manifestation of the Liquid-Gas Phase Transition in Nuclear Collisi......Page 214 3.8 Addendum: Cross-Section Calculations......Page 217 3.9 Selected Nuclear Reaction Web Resources......Page 219 References......Page 220 4 Nuclear Fission......Page 224 53.1 Introduction......Page 1463 47.2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Biological Substances on Molecular, Cellular, and Tissue Levels......Page 1468 56.1.1 X- and Gamma-Ray Sources......Page 1799 12.2.2 Origin of the Matter-AntimatterMatter-antimatter asymmetry Asymmetry......Page 227 7.4.1 General Kinetics of Decay Chains......Page 343 16.1.4 Working Standards (PDB, SMOW, SNOW, SLAP)......Page 732 55.5.1 Exposure to Natural Sources......Page 2527 4.2.6 Missed Opportunities......Page 232 41.3 Methods for 11C-Syntheses......Page 693 4.3.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 233 60.5.7 Other PWI Processes......Page 2788 42.5.4 Electrochemical Cells......Page 235 59.2.1.1 Thermoelectric Nuclear Power Systems......Page 237 31.4.5 Neutron Shutter, Beam Tube, Sample Holder, and Beam Stop......Page 1634 4.3.5 The Shell Model......Page 240 4.3.6 The Combination of the Liquid Drop Model and the Shell Model According to Strutinsky......Page 243 57.4 Specific Nuclear Reactors and Other Nuclear Devices......Page 245 5.5.2.2 The Innermost Barrier of Uranium Isotopes......Page 246 55.3.1.3 Fish......Page 2511 4.4.3 Nuclear Charge Distribution......Page 263 12.2.1.4 Dark Energy, the Accelerating Universe, and the Problem of Distance Measurements......Page 622 58.2.3.1 Self-Consistent Nuclear Energy System (SCNES)......Page 267 8.3.6.2 Transition Radiation......Page 384 4.4.4 Ternary Fission......Page 271 33.3.3 Instrumentation......Page 273 29.3.1.2 Single-Crystal Neutron Diffraction, ``Ab Initio ́ ́ Structure Determination......Page 1528 4.4.5.3 Level Densities in the Isomers......Page 277 39.5 Production of Therapeutic Radionuclides......Page 278 56 Appendix - Reference Data to Part V......Page 1034 11.1.1 The SI Units of Measurement......Page 335 5.2.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 284 54.2.2 Protocols of Sample Preparation and Measurements......Page 285 62.3 Radionuclide Chronometry......Page 289 62.4.4.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2198 40.2.2 Generators with Potential Medical Application......Page 291 55.4 Environmental Transport of Radioactive Effluents; Routine and Accidental Releases......Page 292 43.3.3 Agents for Renal Function......Page 718 28.4.2 Coulomb Capture Ratios......Page 1496 62.5 Special Nuclear Materials......Page 2872 42.3.1.3 Electrophilic [18F]F2 from n.c.a. [18F]F-......Page 379 35.4.2 Gamma-Ray Measurements......Page 301 5.5.2.1 The Depth of the Third Minimum in 236U......Page 304 5.5.3 Hyperdeformed Rotational Bands in 234U......Page 306 63.3.3.2 Low-Resolution Gamma Spectroscopy (LRGS)......Page 2911 5.5.4 Subbarrier Fission Resonances and Transitional States Observed in 232U......Page 312 5.6 The Fission-Barrier Landscape......Page 316 References......Page 363 48.8 Editors ́ Notes......Page 318 49 Dosimetry Methods......Page 320 61.1 Radioactive Wastes......Page 321 6.2 Basics of Nuclear Physics......Page 322 57.3 General Principles of Reactor Design......Page 2123 24.4 Hot Atom Reactions in Gaseous Phase......Page 463 55.5 Sources of the Effective Dose to the Population in the Environment......Page 1013 References......Page 2064 30.7 Location Sensitive Analysis......Page 333 46 Radionuclide Therapy......Page 334 55.3.2 Terrestrial Environment......Page 1464 58.2 Future: The Extrapolation of Past and Present......Page 1860 33.4 Editors ́ Note......Page 1732 51.3.4 Equilibrium Time......Page 347 13.3.1 Approach to Equilibrium......Page 676 7.5 Decay Constant (Half-Life) Systematics......Page 354 51.4.2 Thermal Diffusion......Page 2379 9.3.2 The Central Limit Theorem ......Page 357 7.5.3 Gamma Decay ......Page 360 57.3.7 Critical Size......Page 362 60.6 Prospects of Practical Application......Page 2790 8 Interaction of Radiation with Matter......Page 364 48.2 General Properties of Detectors......Page 2261 25.1.2 Thermal Broadening: γ Emission and Absorption in Gases......Page 371 42.3.1 Electrophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 373 8.2.4 Fluctuations in the energy loss......Page 374 58.2.5 High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR)......Page 375 13.3.2 Branching Decay......Page 677 60.3 Basic Schemes of Magnetic Confinement......Page 2766 8.3.1 Energy Loss of Electrons by Ionization......Page 377 27.1.3.1 Thermalization of Positrons......Page 1465 12.2.1.2 Inflationary Interpretation of the CMBR......Page 619 8.3.2.4 Radiation Length......Page 380 62.3.3 Detection of Incomplete Fuel Reprocessing......Page 381 8.3.5 Absorption of β Radiation......Page 382 33.1.4.2 Deducing Concentrations......Page 383 17.4 Cosmogenic Radionuclides......Page 414 44.6.2 Radioiododehalogenation......Page 747 52.3.3 Uranium Isotope Enrichment......Page 2422 8.4.3 Photoelectric Effect......Page 388 30.5.5 Application of RNAA for the Determination of Radionuclides......Page 788 43.6.4 Vitamins: Folate, Biotin, and B12......Page 2110 8.4.6 Photon Attenuation......Page 390 60.5 Plasma-Wall Interaction in Nuclear Fusion Devices......Page 909 8.5.2 Auger Effect......Page 391 References......Page 1931 55.1 Introduction......Page 398 57.2.2 First Attempts to Build Artificial Reactors......Page 2620 46.3.1 Beta-Particle-Emitting Radionuclides......Page 674 60.5.3 Chemical Erosion......Page 2782 24.6.1 Appearance Energy......Page 408 9.3.3 Convolution and Deconvolution......Page 410 23.5.4 Pulse Dosimetry......Page 984 9.4.2 Binomial Distribution : B(n, p)......Page 415 58.2.2.1 Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy......Page 1308 25.3.2 Pattern Analysis......Page 1423 9.4.3.1 Properties......Page 419 9.4.4 Exponential DistributionDistribution : gamma (1, lamda )......Page 421 61.1.1.4 High-Level Waste (HLW)......Page 2800 9.4.4.2 Exponential Law in a Binomial Way ......Page 425 9.4.4.3 The Poisson Connection......Page 427 61.5.5 Transmutation Devices for the Advanced Fuel Cycle......Page 431 31.6.3.1 Energy Resolution......Page 432 9.4.6 Normal Distribution : N(mu , sigma 2)......Page 433 9.4.6.1 Properties......Page 436 9.4.7 The chi2 Distribution : chi2(k)......Page 437 9.4.7.1 Properties......Page 438 62.5.3 Nuclear Reactors and the Production of Plutonium and 233U......Page 2877 50.1.6.1 Radioactive-Ion Sources......Page 2334 44.5 Rating of Radioiodination Methods......Page 2136 9.5.1 Renewal Processes ......Page 443 62.4.4.4 Electron Microprobe Analysis......Page 444 Indoors......Page 2530 9.5.1.3 The ``Primeval ́ ́ Shape of the Photoelectric Peak ......Page 446 9.5.1.4 Statistical Effects Smearing the Photoelectric Peak ......Page 447 23.10.1 DNA and Its Constituents......Page 1311 9.5.2.1 Branching Processes ......Page 448 9.6 Fitting Nuclear Spectra ......Page 449 62.6.1 Overview......Page 2884 9.6.2 The Maximum Likelihood Principle ......Page 450 17.19.1 Fictitious Isochrons in the Rift Valley......Page 451 9.6.4 Weighted Least Squares Method in Nuclear Spectroscopy ......Page 452 20.7 Element 106 (Seaborgium)......Page 970 References......Page 455 References......Page 456 29 Neutron Scattering Methods in Chemistry......Page 458 51.1 Introduction......Page 2371 18.2.1 Actinide Concept......Page 847 45.3 Examples of Radiometal-Chelate-Biomolecule Conjugates......Page 2165 16.7 Quantifying Isotopic Chronostratigraphy......Page 467 59.2.2 Nuclear Power Propulsions......Page 470 References......Page 471 References......Page 474 14 RadioelementsRadioelements......Page 690 11.1 The International System of Units (SI)......Page 477 46.2.1.1 Geometrical Considerations......Page 478 58.2.2 Requirements on the Advanced Nuclear Energy System......Page 479 11.2 Fundamental Physical Constants......Page 482 50.1.4 Production of Ions from NonGaseous Materials......Page 2329 12.3 Primordial NucleosynthesisNUCLEOSYNTHESIS......Page 488 11.4 Atomic Data......Page 505 25.2.2 Quadrupole Splitting......Page 1408 57.3.6 Reactor Kinetics......Page 511 18.2.5 XAFS: New Methodology for Chemical Studies of Transuranium Elements......Page 516 39.6 Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 541 References......Page 610 12 Origin of the Chemical Elements......Page 614 12.2.1.1 Observations of CMBR......Page 617 58.2.2.3 Effective Utilization of Resources and Environmental Preservation......Page 2670 43.3 Commercial 99mTc-Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 1626 13.1.4 4n + 1 Chain......Page 629 12.3.1 Weak DecouplingWeak decoupling......Page 630 60.5.5 Redeposition and Co-Deposition......Page 2785 40.3.1 Overview......Page 635 54.2.1.5 Ion Detector......Page 638 49.4.1.1 Principles of Calorimetry......Page 2308 12.4.1.3 SupernovaSupernova explosions Explosions......Page 640 12.4.1.4 Core-Collapse SupernovaeSupernovatype II......Page 641 12.4.2 Hydrogen BurningHydrogen burning: Proton-Proton ChainProton-proton chain, CNO-CycleCNO cycle......Page 642 38.3.7 General Equations Governing the Reactor Production of Radionuclides......Page 1878 61.4.3 Direct Disposal of High-Level Waste......Page 1576 12.4.5 NucleosynthesisNucleosynthesisof heavy elements Beyond Fe......Page 649 49.4.1.4 Dosimetry at Low-Energy Electron Irradiation......Page 2312 29.4.1.1 Description of the Liquid StructureLiquid structure, Based on Experimentally Available Quantities......Page 652 45.5 Outlook......Page 653 16.8.2 The Eocene Ocean......Page 752 12.5.4 X-ray BurstsX-ray burst and the rp-Processrp-process......Page 656 63.3.4.1 Neutron Detectors......Page 2915 35.6.2 Production of Radioactive Multitracers......Page 1773 12.6.1 Experiments and Observations......Page 658 12.6.3 Meteoritic Inclusions......Page 660 12.6.4 Galactical Chemical EvolutionChemical evolutionof a galaxy: Putting it all Together......Page 662 48.7 Composite Detectors......Page 776 59.1 Introduction......Page 669 45.2.1 Role of the Chelator in the Design of Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 672 33.2.1 Theoretical Background......Page 1712 34.3 Id18f: A Dedicated X-Ray Microprobe End-Station......Page 703 62.2.4 Reagent Blanks......Page 2851 39.3.2 Non-Standard Positron Emitters......Page 1919 References......Page 679 58.3.2 Fast Reactors with a Closed Fuel Cycle as a Basis of Large-Scale Nuclear Power......Page 2704 13.4.2 Gamma Rays......Page 680 51.5.2 Dual Temperature Exchange: The GS Process......Page 987 43.5 Strategies for the Labeling of Targeting Molecules......Page 687 17.6 Fission Track Dating......Page 775 62.1.1 Nuclear Smuggling......Page 2760 28.4 Theory of Exotic Atoms......Page 695 Acknowledgment......Page 699 15 Isotope Effects......Page 700 39.1 Introduction......Page 1904 34.2 Synchrotron Micro- and Nanoscopic X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis......Page 702 61.4 The ``Back-End ́ ́ of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 705 41.2.2 Synthetic Considerations......Page 707 15.5.1 Vapor Pressure Isotope Effects......Page 709 15.5.2 Isotope Effects on Other Phase Equilibria......Page 712 References......Page 714 53.7 Conclusion......Page 2454 15.8 Mass-Independent Isotope Effects......Page 720 References......Page 721 27.3.1 Construction of Positron Sources......Page 722 References......Page 724 37 Introduction to the Fourth Volume......Page 1620 46.1 Introduction......Page 2180 48.3.1 Ionization Chambers......Page 2262 16.1.2 First Carbonate/Water Paleotemperature Scale......Page 731 41.2 Radiotracer Synthesis......Page 733 16.2.1 Basic Considerations......Page 735 16.2.2 Dole Effect and the Meteoric Water Line......Page 736 50.3 RF-Based and AC-Voltage Accelerators......Page 738 52.2.4 Studies of Plutonium Speciation......Page 2004 48.4 Semiconductors......Page 2170 16.4.2 Carbon Cycle Changes......Page 743 55.6 Measures in Nuclear Emergency......Page 745 16.6.3 Pleistocene/Holocene Climatic Changes......Page 748 16.8 Time ́s Arrow Reversed: Pliocene Paleoclimates......Page 751 51.6.2 Isotope Separation by Redox Ion-Exchange Chromatography......Page 754 16.8.5 Isotopes as Mesozoic Climate Indicators......Page 755 30.6.3 Validation......Page 756 25.4.5 Emission Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1434 16.8.8 The Precambrian Eons......Page 758 16.8.8.1 Archean/Proterozoic Transition......Page 759 References......Page 760 59 Nuclear Power Sources for Space Systems......Page 2403 42.1 Introduction......Page 1035 17.2 Argon/Argon......Page 766 17.2.1 Incremental Heating......Page 767 30.2.2 Activation Equation......Page 1560 34.6.2 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy: XANES and EXAFS......Page 1756 44.3.5 Direct Radioiodination......Page 2128 47.4.2 Internal Pathways......Page 2228 38.3.4 Neutron Energy Dependence of Cross Sections......Page 1875 38.3.5 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors......Page 1766 31.4.4 Neutron Absorbers and Shielding Materials......Page 1633 63.5 Environmental Sampling and Analysis to Verify the Completeness of State Declarations......Page 774 31.8.1 Absolute Approach......Page 1654 17.9 Lutetium/Hafnium......Page 777 17.12 Osmium/Osmium......Page 778 17.13 Pleochroic Haloes......Page 779 17.14 Polonium/Lead......Page 780 17.15 Potassium/Argon......Page 782 17.16 Potassium/Calcium......Page 784 17.17 Radiocarbon (Carbon-14)......Page 785 31.5.1 Sample Size and Shape......Page 786 17.17.3 Radiocarbon in Dead Animals and Plants......Page 787 31.6.3 Calibration Procedures......Page 1643 17.17.8 Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon......Page 789 17.17.9 Radiocarbon and Dating Groundwaters......Page 790 17.18 Rhenium/Osmium......Page 791 17.19 Rubidium/Strontium......Page 792 17.19.3 Some Caveats......Page 795 17.20 Samarium/Neodymium......Page 796 17.21 Thermoluminescence (TL)......Page 797 17.22 Tritium......Page 798 17.22.1 Dating Using Tritium and Tritogenic 3He......Page 799 17.22.2 A Danubian Application of the Tritium/3He Dating Method......Page 800 17.23.1 Ionium (230Th)......Page 801 17.23.3 Lead-210......Page 802 17.23.4 Snow, Ice, and Volcanoes......Page 803 17.23.6 The Uranium-234, Uranium-238 Geochronometer......Page 804 17.24 Uranium/Thorium/Lead......Page 805 17.24.1 Radioactive Series......Page 806 17.24.2 Concordia and Discordia......Page 808 17.24.3 Common Lead......Page 810 17.24.4 The Holmes/Houtermans Model......Page 811 17.24.5 Anomalous Lead......Page 812 17.24.6 Multistage Leads......Page 813 17.25 Uranium/Xenon, Uranium/Krypton......Page 814 17.25.1 Pitchblendes......Page 815 Further Reading......Page 816 43 99mTc: Labeling Chemistry and Labeled Compounds......Page 2073 18.1.1.1 Neptunium (Np)......Page 819 62.1.3.2 Pre-det and Post-det......Page 2322 59.2.2.2 The Russian Concept of the Model NPP Designs......Page 821 27.2.3.3 Chemical Reactions......Page 1471 57.3.6.3 The Critical State......Page 2635 18.1.1.7 Nobelium (No) and Lawrencium (Lr)......Page 823 60.5.1 Basic PSI Processes......Page 1011 18.1.2.1 Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 824 54.2.3.1 10Be......Page 827 54.2.3 Importance of Cosmogenic and SN Radionuclides and the Required Chemistry for AMS Analysis......Page 2475 33.3.3.2 Ion-Gamma Reactions......Page 1726 18.1.4.3 Spontaneous Fission......Page 842 18.1.4.4 Progress in Two-Mode Fission......Page 846 42.5.1 Microwave Applications in Radiolabeling......Page 850 61.5.5.1 Future of P&T......Page 2831 18.2.3.2 Solvent Extraction Separation......Page 853 18.2.6 Computational Chemistry of Transuranium Elements......Page 866 References......Page 869 61 Radioactive Waste Management......Page 878 62.1 Introduction......Page 879 19.2 A Brief History of Discoveries......Page 883 39.3 Production of Positron Emitters......Page 893 28.3.2 Muon Polarization, Surface Muons......Page 1490 43.3.1 Myocardial Imaging Agents......Page 1390 63.2.5 Material Balance Area and Measurement Points......Page 899 19.4 Nuclear Structure of the TransactinideTransactinidesNuclear Structure of Nuclides......Page 900 61.3.5 Commercial Nuclear Power Generation......Page 902 50.2.1 Principles of Direct Voltage Accelerators......Page 903 19.5.2 Experiment......Page 911 19.5.3 Future Perspectives......Page 916 41.6 Quality Control of 11C-Compounds......Page 2012 57.7 Editors ́ Notes......Page 920 62 Nuclear Forensic Materials and Methods......Page 926 50.2.2 Accelerator Configurations......Page 2338 51.3.2 Simple and Countercurrent Cascades......Page 2373 56.1.2 Electron and Alpha Sources......Page 934 20.5 Element 104 (Rutherfordium)......Page 944 62.4.3.2 Particle Detection......Page 1983 39.2.5 Chemical Processing of the Irradiated Material......Page 1911 33.1.6 Fields of Application......Page 1711 35.3.3 Purity......Page 1569 52.2.3 Studies in Complex Chemistry......Page 1473 55.6.1 Averted Dose and Action Levels......Page 973 35.4.5 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry......Page 1369 20.10 Element 112 (Copernicium)......Page 991 50.3.3 Focusing the Particle Beam......Page 2357 35.11 Industrial Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 995 20.12 Editors ́ Notes......Page 996 References......Page 997 46.2 Design of Targeted Radiotherapeutics......Page 1010 21.3 Summary of Results to 1978......Page 1012 References......Page 1534 21.6.1 1999-2003......Page 1016 21.6.2 2004-2009......Page 1018 41.7 11C as a Tool in Chemistry Research......Page 1024 23 Radiation Chemistry......Page 1266 54.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)......Page 2372 52.1.2 Extraction Systems......Page 2407 61.3.1 Uranium Mining and Milling......Page 2672 23.4.2 Pulse Radiolysis, Technical Realization, and Detection Systems......Page 1278 43.3.4 Agents for Other Applications......Page 1282 62.3.1 Chronometry Versus Age-Dating......Page 2852 23.5.3 Dosimetry of gamma-Ray and Electron Irradiation......Page 1283 57.4.2 Reactors for Power Stations......Page 1285 63.2.13.1 Nondestructive Assay......Page 2903 23.6.3 Water as Reactor Coolant......Page 1290 51.7 Photochemical and Laser Isotope Separation......Page 2397 23.7.1 Ice......Page 1292 Acknowledgments......Page 2660 23.8.1 Saturated, Unsaturated, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1294 28.6.1 Study of Nuclear Structure......Page 1300 23.8.3 Ionic Liquids......Page 1301 References......Page 1302 23.9.1 Polymerization, Kinetics, and Mechanism......Page 1303 63.3.6 Unattended NDA Systems......Page 1307 35.7.3 Exchange Reactions......Page 1312 23.10.4 Lipids......Page 1313 25.4.9 Time-Dependent Measurements......Page 1314 23.11.2 Applications of Radiation Chemistry to Nuclear Technology:The Purex Process......Page 1316 23.11.3 Radiation Processing......Page 1318 62.2 Chemical Aspects of Nuclear Forensic Science......Page 2843 42.3.2.1 Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitutions......Page 1397 23.12 Editors' Note......Page 1327 References......Page 1328 51 Isotope Separation......Page 1695 63.1 Introduction......Page 2896 52.2 Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange in Small-Scale Nuclear Chemistry......Page 1338 50.1.1 The Plasma Physics of Ion Sources......Page 2321 62.1.2 Historic Considerations......Page 2840 24.3 Enrichment of Radioisotopes by The Szilard-Chalmers Processes......Page 1343 36.3.1 Status of 14 MeV and 3 MeV Neutron Cross Sections......Page 1835 24.4.2 Halogens......Page 1357 24.4.3 Carbon......Page 1360 48.5 Scintillators......Page 1361 38.3.6 Cross Section Measurements and Flux Monitoring......Page 1877 41.4.3 Compounds for Study of Enzymes and Receptors......Page 2005 24.8 Other Topics in Hot Atom Chemistry......Page 1371 44.4.5 Heterobifunctional Reagents......Page 1880 55.3.1.1 Oceans......Page 1372 24.8.3.2 Molecular Rocket......Page 1374 24.8.4 Impact of Hot Atom Chemistry on Other Research Fields......Page 1377 39 Cyclotron Production of Medical Radionuclides......Page 1380 25.1.1 Isomeric Transition Between Nuclear Levels......Page 1383 25.1.3.1 Conditions of Nuclear Resonance Absorption......Page 1386 25.1.3.2 Lattice Vibrations......Page 1387 33.1.3.3 Micro PIXE Facilities......Page 1389 25.1.5 Hyperfine Interactions......Page 1396 25.1.5.2 Electric Quadrupole Interaction......Page 1401 58.2.3.2 Fast Reactor and Related Fuel Cycle......Page 1403 41.3.3.1 General......Page 1404 25.2.1.1 Chemical Isomer Shift......Page 1405 61.2 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 2288 57.4.2.4 The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)......Page 2648 25.2.3 Magnetic Splitting......Page 1409 33.2.3 Elastic Recoil Detection, ERD......Page 1412 25.2.5 The f-Factor......Page 1413 63.2.11 Detection Probability......Page 1500 25.2.7 Mössbauer Parameters and Experimental Parameters......Page 1415 27.3.3.5 AMOC......Page 1481 61.5.4.2 Aqueous Schemes for the Separation of Minor Actinides from HLW from PUREX......Page 2826 61.5.4.3 Advantages of Nonaqueous Processes for Partitioning and Transmutation......Page 1418 25.2.7.5 Angular Dependence of Peak Areas/Intensities......Page 1419 47.4.3.1 Factors to Reduce Exposure from External Sources......Page 1421 25.3.1 The Fingerprint Method......Page 1422 25.3.4 Quantitative Analysis......Page 1428 52.4 Acronyms......Page 2426 52.3.4 Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuel......Page 2423 25.4.3 Reflection Geometry......Page 1430 25.4.3.1 Conversion Electron Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1431 Detectors for CEMS......Page 1432 Depth Selective CEMS......Page 1433 25.4.5.1 Aftereffects......Page 1435 25.4.8 Capillary Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1436 25.4.12 Sources and Absorbers......Page 1437 25.4.13 Cryostates, Furnaces, Magnets, and Pressure Cells......Page 1439 41.5 PET in Drug Development......Page 2010 25.5.1 Applications in Nuclear Sciences......Page 1440 25.5.2 Chemical and Analytical Applications......Page 1441 References......Page 1444 26 Mössbauer Excitation by Synchrotron Radiation......Page 1448 30.1 Introduction......Page 1449 26.2 Nuclear Resonant Elastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Elastic Scattering......Page 1450 26.3 Nuclear Resonant Inelastic and Quasi-Elastic ScatteringQuasi-Elastic ScatteringInelastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Inelas......Page 1455 54.4 Conclusion and Future Scope......Page 1460 53 Radiochemical Separations by Thermochromatography......Page 1462 63.2.3 Significant Quantity......Page 2522 41.2.2.2 Reaction Kinetics......Page 1981 42.3.2 Nucleophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 2032 63.3.3.1 Gamma Ray Detectors......Page 1470 27.3.3.1 Positron Lifetime Spectroscopy......Page 1474 27.3.3.2 Angular Correlation of Annihilation Radiation......Page 1476 27.3.3.3 Doppler-Broadening Spectroscopy......Page 1478 41.3.3.4 Carbonylations......Page 1480 39.4 Production of Photon Emitters......Page 1924 35.4.3 Beta-Ray Measurements......Page 1769 27.4.2 Polymers......Page 1483 61.5.1 Transmutation of Minor Actinides......Page 2819 28.1 Introduction......Page 1488 59.2.1 Onboard Reactor Power Sources......Page 2023 39.2.3.2 Targets for Irradiations with Extracted Beams......Page 1908 28.3.4 Applications in Solid-State Physics and Chemistry......Page 1492 28.3.5 The Anomalous Magnetic Moment of the Muon......Page 1495 55.5.2 Medical Exposure......Page 2533 28.4.5 Exotic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1499 29.5.1.1 Reactor SourcesReactor sources......Page 1543 47.7.2 Cytogenetic Assays......Page 1501 51.6.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 2361 28.6.2 Pionic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1504 28.6.2.1 Principle of Study......Page 1505 61.1.1.2 Low-Level Waste (LLW)......Page 2219 60.5.2 Physical Sputtering......Page 2326 28.6.2.4 Development of the LMM Model......Page 1507 33.3.4 Quantitative Elemental Analysis......Page 1606 46.2.2.2 Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 2187 28.6.3.2 Long-Lived Antiprotonic Helium......Page 1508 References......Page 1512 29.1.2 Comparison with X-ray ScatteringX-ray scattering......Page 1519 56.2 Fission Product Yields......Page 2575 29.2.1.3 The Scattering LengthScattering length......Page 1520 54.2.1.2 Tandem Accelerator......Page 2466 62.2.1 Commonly Used Chemical Methods in the Radiochemical Forensic Laboratory......Page 1521 29.2.2.2 Coherent and Incoherent ScatteringIncoherent scatteringCoherent and incoherent scattering......Page 1523 29.2.2.3 Correlation FunctionsCorrelation functionsfor nuclear scattering for Nuclear ScatteringNuclear scatteringcorrelation f......Page 1524 55.3.2.2 Soil......Page 2330 61.4.2.4 Recycling U......Page 2816 29.3.1.4 Time-of-Flight (TOF)Time-of-flight (TOF) Variants of Neutron DiffractionNeutron diffractionTime-of-flight (TOF) Method......Page 1532 60.5.6 Edge Plasmas in Magnetically Confined Fusion Devices......Page 1915 29.4.1.2 Determination of the Radial Distribution Function from Neutron Diffraction of Liquids......Page 1536 29.4.2 Microscopic Dynamics in Liquids......Page 1538 58.2.5.1 Features of HTGR......Page 1539 61.4.2 Fuel Reprocessing......Page 2811 48.5.3 Liquid Scintillators......Page 2281 53.5 Preparative Radioche Annotation This revised and extended 6 volume handbook set is the most comprehensive and voluminous reference work of its kind in the field of nuclear chemistry. The Handbook set covers all of the chemical aspects of nuclear science starting from the physical basics and including such diverse areas as the chemistry of transactinides and exotic atoms as well as radioactive waste management and radiopharmaceutical chemistry relevant to nuclear medicine. The nuclear methods of the investigation of chemical structure also receive ample space and attention. The international team of authors consists of scores of world-renowned experts - nuclear chemists, radiopharmaceutical chemists and physicists - from Europe, USA, and Asia. The Handbook set is an invaluable reference for nuclear scientists, biologists, chemists, physicists, physicians practicing nuclear medicine, graduate students and teachers - virtually all who are involved in the chemical and radiopharmaceutical aspects of nuclear science. The Handbook set also provides further reading via the rich selection of references