Handbook of Natural Fibres: Volume 2: Processing and Applications (The Textile Institute Book)

Advances in Textile Biotechnology, Second Edition examines the latest in biotechnology for the fiber and textile industry. This new edition has been fully revised to include the current essential areas of development in the field, covering both natural and synthetic fibers. Chapters cover the latest technology in bioprocessing for bast fiber, PVA, polyester, wool and silk before exploring issues of enzyme stability. Essential areas of application and development are then considered, including biomedical textiles, silk materials for biotechnological applications, bacterial cellulose, the ink jetting of enzymes, and the role of enzymes, wool and silk fibers. Containing groundbreaking research, this book will be essential reading for manufacturers, designers and engineers in the textiles industry, textile and fiber scientists, and academic researchers and postgraduate students working in the area of textile technology. Front Cover......Page 1 Handbook of Natural Fibres......Page 2 Recently Published and Upcoming Titles in The Textile Institute Book Series......Page 3 Handbook of Natural Fibres......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Contributors......Page 14 One - Processing techniques for natural fibres......Page 18 1.1.2 World cotton production......Page 20 1.2 Fibre growth development......Page 24 1.2.1 Submicroscopic structure of the secondary wall......Page 26 1.3.1 The role of fibre length......Page 27 1.3.4 Fibre fineness and maturity......Page 28 1.3.5 Fibre colour......Page 29 1.3.7 Fibre weathering......Page 30 1.3.9 Fibre testing......Page 31 1.4.2.1 Defoliation......Page 32 1.5 Ginning mill processes and technology......Page 33 1.6 Cotton classification......Page 38 1.7.1 Grade standards......Page 39 1.8 Cotton yarn spinning......Page 40 1.8.1.3 Cotton carding......Page 41 1.8.2.1 Ring spinning......Page 42 1.8.2.3 Open-end rotor spinning......Page 43 1.8.2.4 Siro spinning......Page 44 1.8.3 Fibre-to-yarn conversion......Page 45 1.9.1 Yarn count ‘yarn linear density’......Page 47 1.9.5 Yarn imperfections......Page 48 1.10.2 Warping......Page 49 1.10.2.2 Section warp......Page 50 1.10.4 Leasing, knotting and drawing......Page 51 1.10.5.1 Weaving process......Page 52 1.11.1 Definition of terry towel......Page 53 1.11.2 Basics of terry weaving......Page 54 1.12.1 Definition of knitting......Page 55 1.12.2.1 Loop and stitch......Page 56 1.12.2.3 Tuck......Page 57 1.13.1 Bursting strength test of fabric......Page 59 1.13.6 Dimensional changes after home laundering......Page 60 1.14.1 Application of nondestructive testing......Page 61 1.15 Conclusion......Page 62 1.15.1 Future trends......Page 63 References......Page 64 Further reading......Page 65 2.1 Jute fibre......Page 66 2.2.1 Jute cellulose......Page 69 2.2.2 Jute hemicellulose......Page 71 2.2.3 Jute-lignin......Page 72 2.2.4 Fats and waxes in jute......Page 73 2.2.6 Inter-unit linkages in jute......Page 74 2.2.7 Physical structure and properties of jute......Page 75 2.3 Chemical aspects and effect of chemical treatments of jute fibres......Page 77 2.3.1 Treatment of jute with caustic soda (NaOH)......Page 79 2.3.3 Bleaching/oxidation of jute and related fibres......Page 80 2.3.5 Stabilized bleaching of jute......Page 81 2.3.7 Enzyme treatment......Page 82 2.3.9 Treatment of jute fibres with jute batching oil or its substitute as processing aids......Page 83 2.4.1 Spinning process for making jute yarns......Page 84 2.4.2 Processibility of chemically treated/modified jute fibres......Page 85 2.5.1 Jute weaving techniques......Page 86 2.5.2 Conversion of jute yarn to fabric......Page 88 2.5.3 Developments in jute weaving including shuttle less weaving......Page 89 2.6.1 Desizing......Page 91 2.6.2 Scouring and bleaching......Page 92 2.6.3 Chemical dehairing and photo-stabilization of jute yarns and fabrics......Page 93 2.6.4 Dyeing of jute yarns and fabrics......Page 95 2.6.4.1 Application of direct dyes on jute......Page 96 2.6.4.2 Application of acid dyes on jute......Page 98 2.6.4.3 Application of basic dyes on jute......Page 100 2.6.4.4 Application of reactive dyes on jute......Page 101 2.6.4.5 Application of vat dyes on jute......Page 103 2.6.4.6 Application of sulphur dyes on jute......Page 107 2.6.4.7 Application of natural dyes/colours on jute......Page 109 2.6.4.8 Developments in dyeing of jute......Page 112 2.6.5 Pigment printing of jute......Page 114 2.6.6.2 Finishing for improved abrasion resistance and fibre shedding......Page 115 2.6.6.3 Finishing to improve crease resistant property......Page 116 2.6.6.5 Finishing to improve water repellant property......Page 117 2.6.6.7 Simultaneous dyeing and finishing in single bath......Page 118 2.7 Eco-friendly processing of jute......Page 119 2.7.3 Eco-friendly desizing of jute......Page 120 2.7.6 Eco friendly dyeing of jute......Page 121 2.7.8 Eco friendly chemical finishing of jute......Page 122 2.8 Diversified end uses of jute as technical textiles......Page 123 2.9 Conclusions and future trends......Page 128 References......Page 129 Further reading......Page 136 3.1 Introduction to silk and silk industry......Page 138 3.2.1.1 Types of mulberry silk......Page 141 3.2.2.2 Japanese races......Page 142 3.2.3.4 Moulting......Page 143 3.2.4.2 Oak tasar......Page 144 3.2.4.4 Muga......Page 145 3.2.4.8 Mussel silk......Page 146 3.3.1.1 Artificial feeding of silkworm larvae......Page 147 3.3.2.1 Production of silk yarns......Page 148 3.4.1.3 Cocoon cooking......Page 149 3.5.1.1 Country charka......Page 150 3.5.1.3 Multi-end basin......Page 151 3.5.1.4 Automatic reeling......Page 152 3.6 Silk fabric manufacture......Page 153 3.6.1 Stages in the silk fabric manufacture......Page 154 3.6.1.4 Twisting......Page 155 3.6.1.6 Pirn winding......Page 156 Soap and soda boil method......Page 157 Roving......Page 158 Gassing......Page 159 3.8 Future trends in natural silk production......Page 160 References......Page 161 4.1 Introduction......Page 164 4.2.1 A review of the types of flax used in the production of textiles......Page 165 4.2.1.2 Short flax for carded yarns......Page 166 4.2.2 The technical properties of flax fibres......Page 167 4.2.3.1 Fibre processing......Page 169 4.2.3.4 Cottonization of hemp fibres......Page 170 4.2.4 Textile fibres for reasonable blends......Page 171 4.3 Applications and examples......Page 172 4.3.1 Textile products end uses containing flax and hemp......Page 173 4.3.2 A brief overview of the financial and economic value of hemp fibres......Page 174 4.3.3 Statistics of flax production, including locations and production tonnages......Page 176 4.4 Future trends and conclusions......Page 178 4.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 180 References......Page 183 5.1 Introduction......Page 186 5.2.1 Randomly orientated flax stems (linseed flax): all fibre extraction......Page 188 5.2.2 Aligned stems: scutching and hackling......Page 192 5.3 Composite reinforcement textiles: use of processes that can maximise the mechanical and the deformability of textile reinfo .........Page 193 5.3.1 A. non-woven reinforcement for composites......Page 194 5.3.1.2 Mechanical properties of flax non-woven fabrics......Page 195 5.3.1.3 Formability potential of flax-nonwoven fabrics......Page 196 5.3.2.1 Manufacture of different families of yarns......Page 198 5.3.2.2 Textile architecturation techniques for 2D and 3D fabrics......Page 204 5.3.2.3 Deformability of reinforcement textiles......Page 205 5.4 Flax fibre geotextiles......Page 207 5.4.1 Degradation of geotextiles......Page 208 5.4.2 Solutions to control the biodegradation of the textiles......Page 209 5.5 Conclusions......Page 212 References......Page 213 6.1 Introduction......Page 222 6.2.1 Description of the flax plant architecture......Page 223 6.2.2 Slenderness and stability of flax......Page 224 6.3 Multi-scale mechanical characterization of flax......Page 225 Three-point bending test – set-up for testing of a flax stem......Page 226 Hypothesis......Page 228 Evaluation of the fibre modulus obtained by bending tests......Page 229 Influence of the measure of cross-section diameter on the tensile behaviour of flax bundles......Page 230 Influence of the gauge length......Page 231 Influence of process on cohesion between elementary fibres......Page 232 6.3.3.1 Impact of fibre morphology and diameter measurement on tensile properties calculation......Page 233 6.3.3.2 Tensile behaviour of elementary flax fibres......Page 234 6.3.4.1 Investigations using nanoindentation......Page 236 6.3.4.2 Investigations by AFM......Page 237 References......Page 238 7.2 Key principles of enzyme treatment of natural fibres......Page 244 7.2.1 Degumming of bast fibrous plants......Page 245 7.2.2.2 Desizing......Page 248 7.2.2.4 Bleach clean up......Page 249 7.2.2.6 Modification of wool fibre......Page 250 7.3 Main types of enzyme treatments for natural fibres......Page 251 7.3.3 Catalases......Page 252 7.3.4 Pectinases......Page 253 7.3.6 Laccase......Page 254 7.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 256 References......Page 257 Further reading......Page 261 8.1 Introduction......Page 262 8.2.1 The physical and chemical structure of wool......Page 263 8.2.2.1 Felting shrinkage......Page 270 8.2.2.2 Shrink-resist treatments......Page 271 8.2.2.3 Polymer treatments......Page 274 8.2.2.5 Chemical treatment plus polymer: batch treatments......Page 275 8.2.2.6 Continuous treatment of wool top......Page 276 8.2.2.7 Environmental issues of chlorination in wool shrinkproofing......Page 277 8.2.3 Setting......Page 278 8.2.3.1 OPTIM – a new textile fibre made from wool......Page 280 8.2.4.1 Natural dyes......Page 281 8.2.4.2 Synthetic dyes......Page 283 8.2.4.3 Effect of fibre structure on dyeing......Page 285 8.2.4.4 Fibre damage in processing and dyeing......Page 288 8.2.6 Wrinkling and wrinkle recovery......Page 289 8.2.6.1 Ageing and annealing......Page 291 8.2.7 Insect resistance......Page 292 8.2.9 Treatments to reduce yellowing......Page 294 8.2.10 Polymer grafting......Page 296 8.3.1 Chemical and physical structure of silk......Page 297 8.3.2 Weighting......Page 298 8.3.3 Cross-linking and grafting treatments......Page 300 8.3.5 Dyeing and printing......Page 301 8.3.6 Treatment with acid and alkali......Page 302 8.3.8 Other protein fibres......Page 303 8.4 Cotton......Page 304 8.4.1 Physical and chemical structure of cotton......Page 305 8.4.2.1 Singeing, de-sizing, scouring and bleaching......Page 306 8.4.3 Mercerization......Page 307 8.4.4 Treatment with liquid ammonia......Page 309 8.4.5 Cross-linking for durable press finishes......Page 310 8.4.6 Corona treatment......Page 313 8.4.7.1 Dyeing cotton with natural dyes......Page 314 8.4.7.3 Direct dyes......Page 315 8.4.7.4 Reactive dyes......Page 316 8.4.7.5 Vat, sulfur and azoic dyes......Page 318 8.4.8 Environmental issues of cotton processing......Page 320 8.5.1 Mercerization......Page 322 8.5.3 Acetylation and cyanoethylation......Page 323 Appendix: abbreviations......Page 324 References......Page 325 9.1 Introduction......Page 340 9.2 Key principles of electrokinetic properties of natural fibres......Page 341 9.2.1 Theoretical background......Page 342 9.2.2 Experimental methods......Page 346 9.2.3 The zeta potential of natural fibres......Page 347 9.3 Applications......Page 352 9.3.1 Cellulose pulp......Page 353 9.3.2 Cotton......Page 354 9.3.3 Other cellulosic fibres......Page 357 9.3.4 Regenerated cellulose......Page 359 9.3.5 Human hair......Page 360 9.4 Future trends......Page 363 9.5 Conclusion......Page 364 9.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 365 Abbreviations......Page 366 References......Page 367 10.1.1 Historical background......Page 372 10.1.2 Flame retardant (FR) market (Wilkie et al., 2009)......Page 376 10.2 Key issues in flame retardancy of natural fibres and lignocellulosic textiles......Page 379 10.3.1 Cellulosic fibres......Page 385 10.3.2.1 Silk......Page 389 10.3.2.2 Wool......Page 390 10.3.2.3 Zirpro flame retardant treatments......Page 391 10.3.3.1 Flammability of leather......Page 392 10.4 Methods of improving flame retardancy in natural fibres......Page 395 10.4.1 Flame retardant textile back-coatings......Page 400 10.5 Future trends......Page 401 10.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 403 10.7 Conclusions......Page 404 References......Page 405 11.1 Introduction......Page 410 11.2 Key issues in recultivation of polluted lands......Page 411 11.3 Methods of recultivation and remediation of polluted lands......Page 415 11.4.1 Results of reclamation work......Page 420 11.5 Future trends......Page 430 References......Page 431 Sources of further information and advice......Page 433 12.1 Plant biology......Page 436 12.1.1 Sex dimorphism......Page 437 12.1.2 Biologically active compounds......Page 438 12.1.2.1.1 Characteristics of the most common cannabinoids......Page 439 12.1.2.2.1 Characteristics of the most common terpenes and terpenoids......Page 440 12.1.2.3.1 Synthesis......Page 441 12.1.2.5 Alkaloids......Page 442 12.1.2.6 Lignanamides and phenolic amides......Page 443 12.2.1 Endocannabinoid system (ECS)......Page 444 12.2.1.2.1 CB1, CB2 receptors......Page 445 12.2.1.2.2 Endogenous cannabinoids......Page 446 12.2.2 Psychogenic side effects of cannabinoids – physiological elucidation......Page 447 12.2.3.1 THC – tetrahydrocannabinol......Page 448 12.2.3.2 CBD – cannabidiol......Page 449 12.2.3.3 CBN – cannabinol......Page 450 12.2.3.6 CBC – cannabichromene......Page 451 12.2.3.9 Acid forms......Page 452 12.2.3.10 Terpenoids and flavonoids......Page 453 12.2.5 Reports on the effectiveness of medical treatment, description of medical cases......Page 454 12.2.6.1 Available preparations and use......Page 455 12.3 Conclusions and prospects......Page 457 References......Page 458 Two - Applications and case studies for natural fibres......Page 466 13.1 Introduction......Page 468 13.2.1.1 Dyeing......Page 471 13.3.1 Dying effect......Page 472 13.3.2.1 Wrinkle recovery angle......Page 474 13.3.2.3 Tensile strength......Page 475 13.3.2.4 Air permeability......Page 478 13.3.2.5 Moisture regain......Page 479 13.4 Future trends......Page 480 References......Page 482 14.1 Introduction......Page 486 14.2.1 Fundamentals of composite materials......Page 488 14.2.2 Matrix resins systems for NFCs......Page 491 14.3 Natural fibre reinforcement forms for green composites......Page 494 14.4 NFC manufacturing methods......Page 497 14.5.1 Tensile test (ASTM D3039, EN 61, ISO 3268)......Page 501 14.5.2 Flexural properties (ASTM D790, ISO 178)......Page 502 14.5.3 Impact/toughness properties (ASTM D256, EN ISO 180:2000)......Page 503 14.5.5 Flammability testing......Page 504 14.6.1 Green composites for building materials......Page 505 14.6.2 Green composites for automotive applications......Page 507 14.6.3 Structural NFC composites by z-axis fibre reinforcement......Page 509 14.7 Conclusions......Page 511 Acknowledgements......Page 512 References......Page 513 Further reading......Page 515 15.1 Introduction......Page 516 15.2 Natural vegetable fibres for geotextiles and their suitability......Page 517 15.3 Types of synthetics geotextiles......Page 518 15.4 Market size of natural fibre geotextile......Page 520 15.5 Functional requirements of geosynthetic materials......Page 521 15.6.1 Separation or stabilization......Page 524 15.6.2 Drainage/filtration......Page 525 15.6.3 Erosion control......Page 526 15.6.4 Reinforcement......Page 527 15.7.1 Functions and applications of geotextiles in civil engineering......Page 528 15.7.2 Reinforcement of weak soil and other materials......Page 538 15.7.4 Erosion control......Page 540 15.7.6 Moisturizers......Page 541 15.8 Future trends......Page 542 15.9 Source of further information......Page 543 Acknowledgements......Page 544 References......Page 545 16.1 Introduction......Page 548 16.2.1 Challenges of milling natural fibres......Page 549 16.2.2 Pre-treatments of natural fibres for milling......Page 550 16.2.3 Methods of milling natural fibres......Page 551 Air jet mill......Page 552 Ball mills......Page 553 Stirred media mills (attritors)......Page 554 16.2.3.3 Advantage of wet milling of natural fibres......Page 555 16.2.3.4 Obtaining powder after wet milling......Page 556 16.2.3.6 Explosion risks of fibre powders......Page 557 16.3.1 Particle size and morphology......Page 558 16.3.3 Surface area of particles......Page 561 16.3.4 Surface energy of particles......Page 563 16.3.5 Bulk and tapped density......Page 564 16.3.6 Cohesion and flowability of powder......Page 565 16.3.7 Biodegradation of fibre particles......Page 566 16.4.2 Biomedical applications......Page 567 16.4.4 3D printing......Page 569 16.5 Conclusion and outlook......Page 570 References......Page 571 17.1 Introduction......Page 574 17.2.2 Hemp......Page 575 17.3.1 Oil composition in flax and hempseeds......Page 577 17.3.2 Protein profile of flax and hempseeds......Page 579 17.4 Nutritional and health effects of flax and hemp......Page 580 17.4.2 Protein......Page 582 17.4.3 Tocopherols and polyphenols......Page 583 17.4.4 Cannabinoids......Page 584 17.4.5 Terpenes......Page 585 17.5.1 Hemp-based products for human nutrition......Page 586 17.5.2 Hemp-based products for animal nutrition......Page 588 17.6 Regulatory issues regarding novel flax and hemp products......Page 589 17.7 Application of flax and hemp in cosmetics and personal care......Page 590 17.7.1 Traditional uses of flax and hemp for the skin......Page 591 17.7.3 Flaxseed oil......Page 592 17.7.4.2 Flax mucilage gums......Page 593 Hempseed oil......Page 594 Hempseed oil in soaps and shampoos......Page 595 Other hemp compounds acting on the skin......Page 596 17.7.6 Flax and hemp in the cosmeceutical industry......Page 597 17.8 Conclusion......Page 598 References......Page 599 Further reading......Page 606 18.2 Available natural raw materials for paper and packaging......Page 608 18.2.1 Wood fibres......Page 610 18.2.1.1 Softwood fibres......Page 612 18.2.1.2 Hardwood fibres......Page 613 18.2.2 Agriculture residues and annual plants......Page 614 18.2.3 Structure and ultrastructure of fibres......Page 617 18.3.1.1 Mechanical pulping......Page 619 18.3.1.3 Bleaching......Page 621 18.3.1.5 Production of MFC and NCC......Page 623 18.3.2 Papermaking......Page 624 18.3.2.1 Stock preparation......Page 625 18.3.2.2 Sheet formation......Page 626 18.3.3 Specificities of non-wood fibres for pulp and papermaking......Page 627 18.4 New challenges for paper and board producers......Page 629 18.4.3 Smart functions......Page 630 18.5 Conclusions and futures trends......Page 631 References......Page 632 Further reading......Page 636 19.1 Introduction to environmental textiles......Page 638 19.2 The importance of jute and coconut plant cultivation......Page 639 19.3 Extraction of jute and coir fibres......Page 644 19.4 Critical properties of jute and coir fibres......Page 645 19.5 The nature of commercial products from jute and coir......Page 646 19.6.1 Pre-seeded erosion control blanket (PsECB)......Page 648 19.6.2 Jute-coir prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) (Brecodrain)......Page 649 19.6.3 Jute-asphalt overlay fabric (JAO)......Page 652 19.6.4 The super absorbent coir mat (Coirsorb)......Page 656 19.6.5 Braided jute sapling bag......Page 658 19.6.6 Transportable natural grass lawn (COCOLAWN)......Page 661 19.6.7 Waterproof jute packaging (natural rubber coated jute, NRcJ)......Page 662 19.7 Market potential of jute-coir environmental textiles......Page 664 19.8 Conclusion......Page 665 References......Page 666 20.1.2 Infectious diseases......Page 670 20.2.1 Microorganisms on surfaces in general: biofilms......Page 671 20.2.3 Survival time: diversity......Page 672 20.3 Textiles as protection against biohazards and as infection reservoirs......Page 673 20.3.2 Infection reservoir......Page 674 20.4.2 Basic mechanisms of the antimicrobial effect......Page 675 20.4.4 Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy......Page 676 20.5.1 Mechanism......Page 677 20.5.2 Cellulose fibres......Page 678 20.6.2 Cellulose fibres......Page 679 20.7.1 Mechanism......Page 681 20.7.3 Protein fibres......Page 682 20.8.2 Synthetic dyes......Page 683 20.9.1 Role of semiconductors in antimicrobial activity......Page 684 20.9.3 Coating textiles......Page 685 20.10.2 Natural bioactive agents on natural fibres......Page 686 20.11.2 Triclosan (2,4,4′-trichloro-2′-hydroxydiphenyl ether)......Page 687 20.11.8 Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole......Page 688 20.12.1 Nanoparticles......Page 689 20.13 Future trends......Page 690 References......Page 691 Further reading......Page 704 21.1.1 Motivation for looking at nature as a model for textile materials......Page 706 21.1.1.2 Architectural and other built environment flexible materials......Page 707 21.2.1 Introduction to biomimetics......Page 708 21.2.2 Design and function in natural systems......Page 709 21.2.3 Biologically inspired design and function in human systems......Page 710 21.3.1 Biomimetic inspired textiles using synthetic fibres......Page 711 21.3.2 Biomimetic inspired textiles using natural fibres......Page 712 21.3.3 Synthetic natural fibres via molecular biology......Page 713 21.4 Conclusions and future trends......Page 714 References......Page 716 A......Page 718 B......Page 721 C......Page 722 D......Page 726 E......Page 728 F......Page 730 H......Page 733 J......Page 735 K......Page 736 M......Page 737 N......Page 739 P......Page 742 R......Page 745 S......Page 746 T......Page 749 W......Page 751 Z......Page 753 Back Cover......Page 754

The Handbook of Natural Fibres: Volume Two, Processing and Applications, Second Edition provides detailed coverage of the latest processing techniques and industrial applications of a wide range of natural fibers. Natural fibrous resources, both lignocellulosic and protein ones, are renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic, making them an important source of sustainable textile solutions. A broad range of sources of natural fibers are covered in the book, including flax, hemp, bast, jute, coir, linen, cotton and silk. This wealth of expert information provides a uniquely detailed reference for the processing, characterization, selection and application of natural fibers.

• Connects natural fibers to a wide range of industries, including construction, automotive, packaging and medical
• Helps readers appraise natural fibers on the basis of their mechanical, electrokinetic, antimicrobial or flame retardant qualities
• Provides a rare glimpse of emerging manufacturing methods for silk

__Advances in Textile Biotechnology, Second Edition__Containing groundbreaking research, this book will be essential reading for manufacturers, designers and engineers in the textiles industry, textile and fiber scientists, and academic researchers and postgraduate students working in the area of textile technology.