Handbook of Halophytes : From Molecules to Ecosystems Towards Biosaline Agriculture

Preface Contents About the Editor Section Editors Contributors Section I: Conceptual Approach to Halophytes Definition and Classification of Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants 1 Introduction 2 Definition of Halophytes 3 Halophytes and Glycophytes 4 Classification of Halophytes 5 What Is an ``Obligatory´´ Halophyte? 6 Physiological Drought of Soil and the Position of Halophytes Within Ecological Groups of Plants 7 Conclusion References A Botanical History of Halophytes: From Theophrastus to Nowadays 1 Introduction 2 A Historical and Semantic Evolution of Terms 3 First Mentions on Halophytes: Fascination for Mangroves 4 Fascination for Kali and Salicornia and Other Halophytes 5 Halophytes in the Enlightenment 6 Concluding Remarks References Fighting with Salt-Affected Areas 1 Introduction 2 Early Mentions on Salt Marshes (Salt-Affected Areas - `Sărături`) in Romania 3 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături´´) into Scientific Attention 4 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături´´) Were Officially Introduced in Agriculture Policy by Romanian Communist Party 5 Scientific Fight with Salt-Affected Areas 6 Dealing with Secondary Salinization of Soils 7 Final Considerations on Biosaline Agriculture in Romania 8 Present and Perspectives 9 Conclusion References Section II: Halophyte Distribution, Taxonomical Diversity, Flora, and Vegetation Biodiversity of Halophytes of the Arctic Zone: Circumpolar 1 Introduction 2 General Description of the Arctic Coastal Zone 3 Taxonomy, Ecology, and Distribution of Coastal Species 4 Structure and Features of the Existence of Marine Communities on the Shores of the Arctic Seas of Russia 5 Conclusion References Halophytes: A Glimpse of Indian Sundarbans - A World Heritage Site, Its Existing Status, and Sustainability 1 Introduction 2 Significance of Mangrove Vegetation: Global Scenario 3 Indian Perspective 4 Threats and Loss of Mangrove Vegetation 5 Sundarbans Scenario 6 Differential Adaptability of Mangrove Species and Threats Toward Sustainability in Indian Sundarbans 6.1 Anatomical Validation 6.2 Physiological and Biochemical Validation 6.3 Genetic Polymorphism and Sustainability 7 Conclusion References Coastal Salt Marshes 1 Introduction 2 Development and Maintenance of Coastal Salt Marshes 2.1 Relative Sea Level and Sediment Availability 2.2 Sedimentation, Erosion, and Vegetation Dynamics 2.3 Freshwater Input 3 Salt Marsh Ecological Services and Major Threats 4 Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation 4.1 Zonation 4.2 Development and Structure 4.3 Function 5 Classification of European Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation 6 Conclusions References Halophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria 1 Introduction 2 Results 3 Euhalophytic Vegetation 4 Subhalophytic Vegetation 5 Conclusions 6 Syntaxonomic Scheme of Euhalophytic and Subhalophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from Arid Inland Environments of Argentina 1 Introduction 2 Main Environmental Features and Processes of the Inland Saline Ecosystem 2.1 Salinas de Ambargasta 2.2 Pipanaco Salar 3 Main Halophytic Vegetation Features 4 Main Pedo-Geomorphic Relationships and Their Associated Vegetation 4.1 Salinas de Ambargasta 4.2 Pipanaco Salar 5 Conclusions References Halophytic Vegetation in the Pannonian Basin: Origin, Syntaxonomy, Threat, and Conservation 1 Introduction 2 Origin and Distribution 3 Syntaxonomy 3.1 Class Therosalicornietea Tx. in Tx. et Oberd. 1958 3.1.1 Alliance Salicornion prostratae Géhu 1992 Pannonian Vegetation of Annual Succulent Halophytes on Solonchak Soils in Temporarily Wet Inland Salt Pans Salicornietum prostratae Soó 1947 Corr. 1967 Salsoletum sodae Slavnić 1948 Suaedetum pannonicae (Soó 1933) Wendelberger 1943 Spergulario marginatae-Suaedetum prostratae Vicherek in Moravec et al. 1995 3.2 Class Crypsietea aculeatae Vicherek 1973 3.2.1 Alliance Cypero-Spergularion salinae Slavnić 1948 Pioneer Ephemeral Dwarf-Grass Vegetation in Periodically Flooded Saline Habitats of Subcontinental Central and Eastern Europe Crypsietum aculeatae Wenzl 1934 Heleochloëtum schoenoidis Topa 1939 Chenopodietum chenopodioidis Dítě et al. 2017 Chenopodio chenopodioidis-Atriplicetum prostratae Slavnić 1948 Corr. Gutermann and Mucina 1993 Cyperetum pannonici Wendelberger 1943 3.3 Class Festuco-Puccinellietea Soó ex Vicherek 1973 3.3.1 Alliance Puccinellion limosae Soó 1933 Pannonian Hypersaline Open Grasslands on Solonetz Soils Camphorosmetum annuae Soó 1930 Plantagini tenuiflorae-Pholiuretum pannonici Wendelberger 1943 Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1933 Matricario-Plantaginetum tenuiflorae (Soó 1933) Borhidi 1996 Hordeetum hystricis Wendelberger 1950 Bassietum sedoidis Ubrizsy 1948 Corr. Soó 1964 Chenopodio-Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1947 Lepidietum crassifolii Wenzl 1934 3.3.2 Alliance Festucion pseudovinae Soó 1933 Artemisio santonici-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947 Limonio gmelini-Artemisietum santonici (Soó 1927) Topa 1939 Achilleo setaceae-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947 Centaureo pannonicae-Festucetum pseudovinae Klika et Vlach 1937 3.3.3 Alliance Peucedano officinalis-Asterion sedifolii Borhidi 1996 Pannonian Tall-Forb Rich Subsaline Meadows on Calcareous Loess Soils Peucedano-Asteretum sedifolii Soó 1947 Corr. Borhidi 1996 3.4 Class Scorzonero-Juncetea gerardii (Vicherek 1973) Golub et al. 2001 3.4.1 Alliance Juncion gerardii Wendelberger 1943 Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows and Pastures of Southeastern Central Europe Scorzonero parviflorae-Juncetum gerardii Wendelberger 1943 Agrostio stoloniferae-Caricetum distantis Soó 1939 Caricetum divisae Slavnić 1948 Loto tenuis-Potentilletum anserinae Vicherek 1973 3.4.2 Alliance Beckmannion eruciformis Soó 1933 Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows on Heavy Clayey Soils of the Pannonian Basin Agrostio stoloniferae-Alopecuretum pratensis Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003 Agrostio stoloniferae-Beckmannietum eruciformis Rapaics ex Soó 1930 Corr. Borhidi 2010 Agrostis stolonifera-Glycerietum pedicellatae Magyar ex Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003 Eleocharito palustris-Alopecuretum geniculati (Ujvrosi 1937) Soó 1947 Rorippo-Ranunculetum lateriflori (Soó 1947) Borhidi 1996 4 Threats of Salt Vegetation: Past and Present 4.1 From Mammoths Toward to Intensively Cultivated Fields 4.2 Human Activities and Succession of Halophytic Vegetation 5 Conservation and Management 6 Conclusion References Mediterranean Halophytic Flora and Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) 1 Introduction 2 Types of Halophytic Vegetation 2.1 Aquatic Vegetation 2.2 Therophyte Salt-Pastures 2.3 Perennial Salt-Meadows 2.4 Scrubs 2.5 Riparian Groves and Shrublands 3 Areas of the Iberian Peninsula with Halophytic Flora and Vegetation 3.1 The Atlantic coast 3.2 The Mediterranean coast 3.3 The Central Zone 3.3.1 The Duero Basin 3.3.2 The Ebro depression 3.3.3 La Mancha 3.4 Interior Andalusia 3.4.1 The Guadalquivir depression 3.4.2 Depressions of the Guadiana Menor and Granada 3.5 The Semiarid Southeast 4 Halophytic Habitats in the European Union 5 Iberian Halophytic Flora Appendix I. Updated Syntaxonomical Scheme of Mediterranean Halophytic Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula Appendix II. Halophytic Flora in the Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula References Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. in Romania´s Flora 1 Introduction 2 Material and Methods 2.1 Study Area and Sampling Design 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Results 3.2 Discussion 3.2.1 Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd 3.2.2 Armeria maritima subsp. purpurea (W. D. J. Koch) Á. Löve and D. Löve 3.2.3 Armeria maritima subsp. elongata (Hoffm.) Bonnier 3.2.4 Armeria pocutica Pawł. (A. elongata auct. rom., non (Hoffm.) K. Koch) 4 Ecology 5 Distribution Area of the Species in Romania 6 Vulnerability 7 Sozology 8 Conclusions References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from the Aralkum Area 1 Introduction 2 Geography and Geological History of the Aral Sea Basin 3 Recent History and Agriculture 4 Formation and Dynamics of the Aralkum Desert 5 Climate 6 Flora and Vegetation of Aralkum 6.1 History of Floristic Studies 6.2 Composition of the Flora 6.3 Life Form Spectrum 6.4 Geographic Analysis of the Flora 7 Halophytic Vegetation of Aralkum 7.1 Salinity 7.2 Vegetation Types 7.2.1 Annual Vegetation 7.2.2 Perennial Vegetation 7.2.3 Open Salt Deserts 7.2.4 Salt Meadows 8 Halophyte Groups 9 Ion Pattern 10 Ecological Salinity Indicator Values for Plants of the Aralkum Region 11 Conclusions References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes in Inland Areas of Central Europe 1 Introduction 2 Inland Salt-Tolerant Species 3 Inland Salt Marsh Plant Associations 4 Inland Salt Marsh Habitats 5 Conclusions References A Tentative List of Romanian Halophytes: Taxonomy, Distribution, and Ecology 1 Introduction 2 Dealing with a List of Salt-Tolerant Plants: Challenges, Limitations, and Difficulties 3 Criteria for Selecting Salt-Tolerant Species and Including Them in the Actual List 4 What Is Included in the List 5 Abbreviations in the Text 6 List of Romanian Salt-Tolerant Plants 6.1 Ranunculaceae 6.1.1 Myosurus minimus L. 6.1.2 Ranunculus pedatus Waldst. & Kit. 6.1.3 Ranunculus lateriflorus DC. 6.1.4 Ranunculus polyphyllus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. 6.2 Caryophyllaceae 6.2.1 Sagina maritima G.Don. 6.2.2 Cerastium dubium (Bast.) Guépin 6.2.3 Gypsophila muralis L. 6.2.4 Gypsophila perfoliata L. 6.2.5 Silene multiflora (Ehrh.) Pers. 6.2.6 Spergularia media (L.) C. Presl 6.2.7 Spergularia salina J. et C. Presl. 6.3 Chenopodiaceae 6.3.1 Chenopodium glaucum L. 6.3.2 Chenopodium urbicum L. 6.3.3 Chenopodium rubrum L. 6.3.4 Chenopodium chenopodioides (L.) Aellen 6.3.5 Chenopodium polyspermum L. 6.3.6 Atriplex rosea L. 6.3.7 Atriplex littoralis L. 6.3.8 Atriplex prostrata Boucher ex DC. 6.3.9 Atriplex tatarica L. 6.3.10 Halimione pedunculata (L.) Aellen 6.3.11 Halimione verrucifera (M. Bieb.) Aellen 6.3.12 Krascheninnikovia ceratoides (L.) Gueldenst. 6.3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall. 6.3.14 Camphorosma monspeliaca L. 6.3.15 Bassia prostrata (L.) G. Beck 6.3.16 Bassia hirsuta (L.) Asch. 6.3.17 Bassia sedoides (Pall.) Asch. 6.3.18 Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pall.) M. Bieb. 6.3.19 Salicornia procumbens Sm. 6.3.20 Salicornia ramosissima Woods 6.3.21 Salicornia europaea L. 6.3.22 Petrosimonia triandra (Pall.) Simonk. 6.3.23 Petrosimonia oppositifolia (Pall.) Litv. 6.3.24 ?Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall. 6.3.25 Suaeda splendens (Pourr.) Gren. et Godr. 6.3.26 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. 6.3.27 Suaeda maritima ssp. pannonica (Beck) Soó ex P.W. Ball 6.3.28 Suaeda salsa (L.) Pall. 6.3.29 Suaeda confusa Iljin 6.3.30 Salsola kali L. 6.3.31 Salsola soda L. 6.4 Polygonaceae 6.4.1 Polygonum aviculare L. 6.4.2 Polygonum maritimum L. 6.4.3 Polygonum patulum M. Bieb. 6.4.4 Rumex stenophyllus Ledeb. 6.4.5 Rumex maritimus L. 6.5 Plumbaginaceae 6.5.1 ?Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. 6.5.2 Limonium bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort. 6.5.3 Limonium tomentellum (Boiss.) Kuntze 6.5.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze 6.5.5 Limonium meyeri (Boiss.) O. Kuntze 6.5.6 Limonium vulgare Mill 6.5.7 Goniolimon tataricum (L.) Boiss 6.6 Fabaceae 6.6.1 Trigonella procumbens (Besser) Rchb. 6.6.2 Melilotus dentata (Waldst. et Kit.) Pers. 6.6.3 Melilotus altissima Thuill. 6.6.4 Trifolium micranthum Viv. 6.6.5 Trifolium fragiferum L. 6.6.6 Trifolium resupinatum L. 6.6.7 Trifolium ornithopodioides Oeder. 6.6.8 Trifolium strictum L. 6.6.9 Trifolium retusum L. 6.6.10 Trifolium angulatum Waldst. et. Kit. 6.6.11 Trifolium subterraneum L. 6.6.12 Lotus angustissimus L. 6.6.13 Lotus tenuis Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd. 6.6.14 Tetragonolobus maritimus (L.) Roth. 6.7 Lythraceae 6.7.1 Lythrum hyssopifolia L. 6.8 Santalaceae 6.8.1 Thesium arvense Horv. 6.9 Elaeagnaceae 6.9.1 Hippophaë rhamnoides L. 6.10 Euphorbiaceae 6.10.1 Euphorbia paralias L. 6.10.2 Euphorbia peplis L. 6.11 Zygophyllaceae 6.11.1 Zygophyllum fabago L. 6.11.2 Nitraria schoberi L. 6.12 Geraniaceae 6.12.1 Geranium collinum Stephan 6.13 Apiaceae 6.13.1 Eryngium maritimum L. 6.13.2 Bupleurum tenuissimum L. 6.13.3 Apium graveolens L. 6.13.4 Silaum silaus (L.) Schinz et Thell. 6.13.5 Peucedanum latifolium (M. Bieb.) DC. 6.13.6 Palimbia rediviva (Pall.) Thell. 6.14 Tamaricaceae 6.14.1 Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb. 6.15 Frankeniaceae 6.15.1 Frankenia pulverulenta L. 6.15.2 Frankenia hirsuta L. 6.16 Brassicaceae 6.16.1 Euclidium syriacum (L.) W. T Aiton. 6.16.2 Erysimum repandum L. 6.16.3 Rorippa austriaca (Crantz) Besser 6.16.4 Cardamine parviflora L. 6.16.5 Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nutt. ex Torr. et Gray 6.16.6 Lepidium crassifolium Waldst. et Kit. 6.16.7 Lepidium perfoliatum L. 6.16.8 Lepidium latifolium L. 6.16.9 Lepidium ruderale L. 6.16.10 Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch. 6.16.11 Cakile maritima Scop. ssp. euxina (Pobed.) Nyr. 6.16.12 Crambe maritima L. 6.17 Primulaceae 6.17.1 Glaux maritima L. 6.17.2 Anagallis arvensis L. 6.17.3 Samolus valerandi L. 6.18 Gentianaceae 6.18.1 Blackstonia acuminata (W. D. J. Koch et Ziz) Domin 6.18.2 Centaurium spicatum (L.) Fritsch 6.18.3 Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) Druce 6.18.4 Centaurium littorale (Turner) Gilmour ssp. uliginosum (Waldst. et Kit.) Melderis 6.19 Apocynaceae 6.19.1 Trachomitum venetum (L.) Woodson 6.20 Boraginaceae 6.20.1 Argusia sibirica (L.) Dandy 6.20.2 Heliotropium curassavicum L. 6.20.3 Heliotropium supinum L. 6.21 Verbenaceae 6.21.1 Verbena supina L. 6.22 Plantaginaceae 6.22.1 Plantago coronopus L. 6.22.2 Plantago maritima L. 6.22.3 Plantago tenuiflora Waldst. et Kit. 6.22.4 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur 6.22.5 Plantago cornuti Gouan 6.23 Scrophulariaceae 6.23.1 Veronica acinifolia L. 6.24 Asteraceae (Compositae) 6.24.1 Aster oleifolius (Lam.) Wagenitz 6.24.2 Aster sedifolius L. 6.24.3 Aster canus Waldst. et Kit. 6.24.4 Aster tripolium L. 6.24.5 Brachyactis ciliata (Ledeb.) Ledeb. 6.24.6 Inula britannica L. 6.24.7 Achillea asplenifolia Vent. 6.24.8 Matricaria recutita L. 6.24.9 Matricaria perforata Mérat 6.24.10 Artemisia santonica L. 6.24.11 Petasites spurius (Retz.) Rchb. 6.24.12 Cirsium brachycephalum Juratzka 6.24.13 Cirsium alatum (S. G. Gmel.) Bobrov 6.24.14 Serratula bulgarica Acht. et Stoj. 6.24.15 Stemmacantha serratuloides (Georgi) M. Dittrich 6.24.16 Centaurea pontica Prod. et Nyr 6.24.17 Scorzonera cana (C. A. Mey.) Hoffm. 6.24.18 Scorzonera laciniata L. 6.24.19 Scorzonera parviflora Jacq. 6.24.20 Taraxacum bessarabicum (Hornem.) Hand. - Mazz. 6.24.21 Lactuca tatarica (L.) C. A. Mey. 6.24.22 Lactuca saligna L. 6.25 Juncaginaceae 6.25.1 Triglochin maritima L. 6.25.2 Triglochin palustris L. 6.26 Potamogetonaceae 6.26.1 Potamogeton pusillus L. em. Fieber 6.27 Ruppiaceae 6.27.1 Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande 6.27.2 Ruppia maritima L. 6.28 Najadaceae 6.28.1 Najas marina L. 6.28.2 Najas minor All. 6.29 Zannichelliaceae 6.29.1 Zannichellia palustris L. 6.30 Zosteraceae 6.30.1 Zostera marina L. 6.30.2 Zostera noltii Hornem. 6.31 Liliaceae 6.31.1 Scilla autumnalis L. 6.31.2 Asparagus brachyphyllus Turcz. 6.31.3 Allium vineale L. 6.31.4 Allium paniculatum L. 6.32 Iridaceae 6.32.1 Iris spuria L. 6.32.2 Iris halophila Pall. 6.33 Juncaceae 6.33.1 Juncus acutus L. 6.33.2 Juncus bufonius L. 6.33.3 Juncus compressus Jacq. 6.33.4 Juncus gerardi Loisel. 6.33.5 Juncus maritimus Lam. 6.33.6 Juncus littoralis C.A. Mey. 6.34 Cyperaceae 6.34.1 Schoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla 6.34.2 Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (C.C. Gmel.) Palla 6.34.3 Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla 6.34.4 Scirpoides holoschoenus (L.) Sojk 6.34.5 Eleocharis uniglumis (Link) Schult. 6.34.6 Eleocharis parvula (Roem. et Schult.) Link ex Bluff, Ness et Schauer 6.34.7 Cyperus pannonicus Jacq. 6.34.8 Carex stenophylla Wahlenb. 6.34.9 Carex divisa Huds. 6.34.10 Carex hordeistichos Vill. 6.34.11 Carex secalina Willd. ex Wahlenb. 6.34.12 Carex melanostachya Willd. 6.34.13 Carex extensa Gooden. 6.34.14 Carex distans L. 6.34.15 Carex vulpina L. 6.34.16 Carex otrubae Podp. 6.35 Poaceae 6.35.1 Festuca pulchra Schur 6.35.2 Lolium rigidum Gaudin ssp. lepturoides (Boiss.) Sennen & Mauricio 6.35.3 Puccinellia distans (L.) Parl. 6.35.4 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb. 6.35.5 Puccinellia convoluta (Hornem.) Hayek 6.35.6 Puccinellia intermedia (Schur) Holmb 6.35.7 Puccinellia gigantea (Grossh.) Grossh. 6.35.8 Beckmannia eruciformis (L.) Host 6.35.9 Leymus sabulosus (M. Bieb.) Tzvelev 6.35.10 Elymus elongatus (Host) Runemark 6.35.11 Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis 6.35.12 Elymus athericus (Link) Kerguélen 6.35.13 Agropyron orientale (L.) Roem. et Schult. 6.35.14 Hordeum geniculatum All. 6.35.15 Hordeum marinum Huds. 6.35.16 Hordeum jubatum L. 6.35.17 Hordeum secalinum Schreb. 6.35.18 Hordeum murinum L. 6.35.19 Pholiurus pannonicus (Host) Trin. 6.35.20 Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubb. 6.35.21 Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench 6.35.22 Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl. 6.35.23 Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv 6.35.24 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. 6.35.25 Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir. 6.35.26 Alopecurus geniculatus L. 6.35.27 Crypsis aculeata (L.) Aiton 6.35.28 Crypsis alopecuroides (Piller et Mitterp.) Schrad. 6.35.29 Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam. 6.35.30 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 6.35.31 Apera spica-venti (L.) Beauv. 7 Concluding Remarks References Invasive Alien Flora on Coastal Mediterranean Habitats 1 Introduction 2 The Mediterranean Basin 3 Coastal Saline Habitats in the Mediterranean Basin 4 Salt Tolerance in Plants: Halophytes 5 Basic Terminology Related to Biological Invasions and Alien Species 6 Characterization of Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Coastal Habitats 6.1 Plant Adaptations in the Mediterranean Coastal Habitats 6.2 Germination Strategies 6.3 Invaded Habitats by Alien Species 7 Conclusions References Competition Between Halophytes and Invasive Species 1 Introduction 2 The Albufera Natural Park in the Context of the Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot 3 Salt Marshes (``Mallades´´) as Priority Habitats in the Valencian Community 4 Invasive Species in the Study Area 5 Coexistence of Dittrichia viscosa and Limbarda crithmoides in Salt Marshes 5.1 Overview of Previous Study 5.2 Plots Description 5.3 Outstanding Results 6 Conclusions References Littoral Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Seed and Germination Strategies Linked with Salinity 3 Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity 3.1 Classification of Halophytes in Accordance with Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity 3.2 Anatomical Adaptations Observed in Halophytes Growing in Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula 4 Structure and Composition of Salt Marsh Plant Communities 4.1 Sarcocornietalia Fruticosae 4.2 Halocnemetalia Cruciati 4.3 Limonietalia 5 Phylogeographical Patterns of East-Iberian Salt Marsh Plants in the Coastal Halophytes Context 5.1 Quaternary Glaciations 5.2 Barriers and Corridors 5.3 Habitat Fragmentation 5.4 Biological Factors 6 Conservation Strategies 7 In Situ Conservation 8 Ex Situ Conservation References Endangered Halophytes and Their Conservation 1 Introduction 2 Conservation of Halophytes: Facts and Experiences in Eastern Spain 2.1 Area of Study: Salt-Affected Habitats in the Valencian Community (Spain) 2.2 The Plants Living in the Valencian Salt-Affected Habitats: The Outstanding Case of the Genus Limonium 2.3 Endangered Halophytes: The Valencian Limonium Species and Their Distribution 2.4 Plant Conservation Framework in the Valencian Community 2.5 Conservation Actions 2.6 The Plant Micro-Reserves (PMR) Network and Its Application to Salt-Affected Habitats 3 Conclusions: Future Challenges and Dilemmas References Spartina Genus in the Valencian littoral (Spain) 1 Introduction 2 Results 2.1 Distribution in the Valencian Community of S. patens 2.2 Soil Conductivity and Moisture Factors in S. patens Populations 2.3 Inventories 3 Localities 3.1 Conservation 4 Conclusions References Management and Ecosystem Services of Halophytic Vegetation 1 Introduction 2 Ecosystem Services of Saline Habitats 2.1 Provisioning Services of Halophytic Vegetation 2.1.1 Halophytes as Food and Fodder 2.1.2 Cash Crop Halophytes 2.1.3 Nutritional Lipids from Halophytes 2.1.4 Halophytic Species as Sources of Biodiesel 2.1.5 Halophytes as Source of Bioactive Compounds 2.1.6 Other Provisioning Services 2.2 Regulating Services of Halophytic Vegetation 2.2.1 Water Resources Regulation 2.2.2 Flooding Tolerance in Halophytes 2.2.3 Carbon Sequestration 2.2.4 Climate Change and Impacts on Saline Ecosystems 2.2.5 Storm Protection 2.3 Cultural Services 3 Sustainable Use and Management 3.1 Main Threats to Halophytic Ecosystems 3.1.1 Natural Factors Linked with Indirect Human Activities 3.1.2 Human Impacts on Saline Habitats 3.1.3 Agricultural Activities´ Impact on Saline Habitats 3.2 Biological Disturbances 3.3 Sustainable Management of Saline Habitats in Relation to Ecosystem Services 4 Recommendations/Concluding Remarks References Diversity of Halophytes and Salt Tolerant Plants at the Species-, Habitats- and High-Rank Syntaxa Level in Greece 1 Introduction 2 Recent Floristic Investigations in Greece 3 Coastal Plants of Greece 4 Rare, Threatened, and Protected Taxa 5 Coastal Vegetation Syntaxa: Definitions and Wider Spatial Circumscription 6 Coastal Habitat Types (Annex I, Dir. 92/43/EEC) 7 Ecosystem Services 8 Climate Change and Food Security 9 Conclusion References Overview of Halophytes in Sudan and the Horn of Africa 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Information 1.2 Study Area 2 Objectives 3 Methods 4 Findings and Discussion 4.1 Challenges and Constraints 4.2 Financial Constraints 4.3 Political Instability 4.4 Poor Documentation and Data Collection Mechanisms 4.5 Inadequate Technological Resources and Technical Expertise 4.6 Limited Research and Capacity Building Programs 4.7 Natural and Environmental Challenges 4.8 Poor Protective Measures and Enforcement of Environmental Legislations 5 Conclusions References Ecosystem Services of Seagrasses 1 Introduction 2 The Diversity of Seagrasses 3 The Ecosystem Role of Seagrasses 4 Threats 5 The Seagrass Resources 6 The Commercial Use 7 The Transplanting and Restoration 8 The Protection and Legislation 9 Conclusions References Coastal Wetlands of the White Sea 1 Introduction 2 Results and Discussion 2.1 The Influence of Hydrological Conditions and Anthropogenic Impact on the Vegetation Cover of the White Sea and Its Coast 2.2 Synopsis of the Coastal Vegetation Types 2.3 The Spatial Structure of Vegetation in the Lagoons and Estuaries of the White Sea Rivers 3 Conclusion References An Overview of Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula 3 The Syntaxon Communities of the Class Crithmo-Staticetea in Phytoindication: A Study Case of the Kerch Peninsula 4 Partial Flora of the Crithmo-Staticetea in the Crimea 5 Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae) on the Crimean Coast 5.1 The Plant Life Cycle 5.2 The Seasonal Rhythm of Development 5.3 Populations 5.4 The Area of Distribution 5.5 Phytosociology 6 Protection, Conservation Planning, and Land Management 7 Conclusion References Section III: Structural Adaptations of Halophytes: Morphology, Anatomy, and Ultrastructure of Halophytes Ecology and Adaptation of Plants in Marine Coastal Ecosystems in the Context of Climate Change 1 Introduction 2 Abiotic Factors Determining the Zonality of Coastal Salt Marshes of the White Sea 3 Structural Organization of Vegetation on the Seashore of the Northern Part of the Holarctic (with the Example of the White S... 3.1 Taxonomic and Ecological and Geographical Features of Species 3.2 A Comparative Study of the Quantitative Indicators of Plant Leaves Growing on the White Sea Coast 4 Conclusions References Anatomical and Micromorphological Traits in Leaf Blade of Halophytes from a Brazilian Sandy Coastal Plain 1 Introduction 2 Leaf Anatomical Traits 2.1 Leaf Epidermis: Common Epidermal Cells, Stomata, and Trichomes 2.1.1 The Epidermis: Wax and Cuticle 2.1.2 Common Epidermal Cells 2.1.3 Stomata 2.1.4 Trichomes 2.2 The Mesophyll 2.2.1 Chlorophyllous Parenchyma 2.2.2 Plastids and Mitochondria 2.2.3 Water-Storage Parenchyma 2.2.4 Vascular System 3 Conclusion References Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes Within the Southern Pannonian Plain Region 1 Introduction 2 Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes 2.1 Halophytes Classification and Their Relation with Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations 2.2 Succulence 2.3 Secretory Structures 2.4 Tracheoidioblasts 2.5 Successive Cambia 2.6 Kranz Anatomy 2.7 The Xeromorphic Nature of Adaptations in Halophytes 3 Adaptations of Halophytes in the Southern Pannonian Plain Area (Northern Serbia) 3.1 Salicornia europaea L. 3.2 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort 3.3 Salsola soda L. 3.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze 3.5 Tripolium pannonicum (Jacq.) Dobrocz. 3.6 Lepidium cartilagineum (J. Mayer) Thell. 3.7 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur. 3.8 Artemisia maritima L. 3.9 Atriplex littoralis L. 3.10 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb. 3.11 Rorippa kerneri Menyh. 3.12 Hordeum hystrix Roth. 3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall. 4 Conclusion References Adaptation of Recretohalophytes to Salinity 1 Introduction 2 The Structure of Salt Glands Allows Them to Collect and Excrete Ions 2.1 Recretohalophytes Possessing Salt Glands and the Classification of Salt Glands 2.2 Ultrastructural Features of Salt Glands Facilitate Salt Secretion 3 Methods Used to Measure Salt Secretion 4 A Possible Pathway of Salt Inflow into Salt Glands 4.1 The Distribution Rules of Salt Glands Allow Them to Transport Ions Efficiently 4.2 The Cuticle Surrounding the Salt Gland Complex Helps Prevent Ion Leakage 4.3 Apoplastic, Symplastic, and Transmembrane Pathways Are Responsible for Ion Translocation from Leaf Veins to Secretory Cell... 5 The Possible Salt Secretion Mechanism of Salt Glands 5.1 Three Hypotheses to Explain Salt Secretion 5.2 Vesicle Transport May Be the Key Pathway of Salt Secretion 5.3 Candidate Ion Transporters Involved in Salt Secretion 5.4 Single Salt Gland Complexes Can Be Separated 5.5 Modern Molecular Biology Sheds Light on the Mechanism of Salt Secretion from Salt Glands 6 The Development and Evolution of Salt Glands 6.1 Development 6.2 Evolution 6.3 Candidate Genes Involved in Salt Gland Development and Evolution 7 Conclusions and Perspectives 8 Conflict of Interest References Coastal Lichens 1 Introduction 2 Freshwater Lichens 3 Marine Lichens 4 Adaptations of Marine Lichens 5 Conclusion References An Overview of Ecological Anatomy of Poaceae Halophytes from Iran 1 Introduction 2 Halophytic Poaceae in Iran 3 Effect of Salinity on Poaceae 4 Anatomical Adaptation to Salinity in Poaceae 4.1 Kranz Anatomy 4.2 Sclerenchyma Tissue 4.3 Vascular Bundles 4.4 Cortex and Pith 4.5 Bulliform Cells 4.6 Silica Bodies 4.7 Epicuticular Wax 4.8 Salt Glands 5 Conclusion References Leaf Anatomical Adaptations of Mangroves 1 Introduction 2 Stomata and Their Behavior 3 Cuticle and Its Function to Reduce Water Loss 4 Salt Gland and Salt Regulation 5 Mesophyll and Its Functions 6 Water Storage Tissue 7 Cork-Warts and Internal Airflow 8 Conclusion References Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes: A Review 1 Introduction: Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants 2 Review of General Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes 2.1 Succulence 2.2 Mucilage 2.3 Cell Sap 2.4 The Palisade Tissue 2.5 The Intercellular Spaces 2.6 Wax 2.7 Tomentum 2.8 Coriaceous and Glossy Leaves 2.9 Stomata 2.10 Tracheoidioblasts (Spiral Cells, Tracheids) and Mangrove Tracheids 2.11 Stereids (Spicular Cells, Sclereids, Idioblasts) 2.12 Lignification: The Special Case of Successive (Additional, Supernumerary) Cambia 2.13 Salt-Secreting Structures 2.13.1 Salt Glands of Plumbaginaceae 2.13.2 Salt Glands of Tamaricaceae 2.13.3 Salt Glands of Frankeniaceae 2.13.4 Salt Glands of Mangroves 2.13.5 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Primulaceae Family 2.13.6 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Poaceae (Gramineae) 2.13.7 Salt Hairs (Vezicular Hairs, Salt Bladders, Bladders) from Chenopodiaceae 2.13.8 Epidermal Bladder Cells from Aizoaceae (Mesembryanthemaceae) 2.13.9 Other Salt Glands (Cressa cretica, Ipomoea pes-caprae, and Lavatera arborea) 2.14 Kranz Anatomy Structures 2.15 Bulliform Cells 3 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes from (Nontropical) Salt-Marsh Formations 4 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Littoral (Tropical, Nontropical) Halophytes (Seashore Plants, Sea-Coastal Plants... 5 Mangroves (Tropical Coastal Halophytes, Littoral Swamp Forest, Tidal Forest) 6 Conclusions References Morphological Variability of Halophytes: Salicornioideae on Iberian Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Vegetative Structure 2.1 Leaves 2.1.1 Leaf Anatomy 2.2 Stomata 2.3 Stem Anatomy 3 Flower Structure 3.1 Perianth, Androecium, and Gynoecium 3.2 Seeds and Embryos 3.3 Arthrocnemum Seeds 3.4 Halocnemum Seeds 3.5 Halopeplis Seeds 3.6 Microcnemum Seeds 3.7 Salicornia Seeds 3.8 Sarcocornia Seeds 4 General Description, Nomenclature, Habitat, Ecology, and Distribution 4.1 Arthrocnemum Moq. 4.1.1 Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) K. Koch Habitat Distribution 4.2 Halocnemum M. Bieb. 4.2.1 Halocnemum cruciatum (Forssk.) Tod. Habitat 4.2.2 Distribution 4.3 Halopeplis Bunge ex Ung.-Sternb. 4.3.1 Halopeplis (Vahl) Ung.-Sternb. ex Ces., Pass. & Gibelli Habitat Distribution 4.4 Microcnemum Ung.-Sternb. 4.4.1 Microcnemum coralloides (Loscos & J. Pardo) Buen Habitat Distribution 4.5 Salicornia L., Sp. Pl. 4.5.1 Salicornia Habitat Distribution 4.6 Sarcocornia A. J. Scott. 4.6.1 Sarcocornia Habitat Distribution 5 Conclusion Syntaxonomical Appendix References A Comparative Account of the Morphological and Anatomical Characteristics of Three Medicinal Halophytes 1 Introduction 2 General Morphological Features of Plumbago 3 Microscopic Evaluation of Lamina 4 Stomatal Complex 5 Stomatal Development 6 Stomatal Density 7 Licopoli Glands or Mettenian Glands 8 Exo-recretohalophytes 9 Density and Distribution of Salt Glands 10 Structure of the Salt Gland 11 Morphology of Roots 12 Microscopic Evaluation of Roots of Plumbago 13 V Preface Contents About the Editor Section Editors Contributors Section I: Conceptual Approach to Halophytes Definition and Classification of Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants 1 Introduction 2 Definition of Halophytes 3 Halophytes and Glycophytes 4 Classification of Halophytes 5 What Is an ``Obligatory ́ ́ Halophyte? 6 Physiological Drought of Soil and the Position of Halophytes Within Ecological Groups of Plants 7 Conclusion References A Botanical History of Halophytes: From Theophrastus to Nowadays 1 Introduction 2 A Historical and Semantic Evolution of Terms 3 First Mentions on Halophytes: Fascination for Mangroves 4 Fascination for Kali and Salicornia and Other Halophytes 5 Halophytes in the Enlightenment 6 Concluding Remarks References Fighting with Salt-Affected Areas 1 Introduction 2 Early Mentions on Salt Marshes (Salt-Affected Areas - `Sărături`) in Romania 3 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături ́ ́) into Scientific Attention 4 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături ́ ́) Were Officially Introduced in Agriculture Policy by Romanian Communist Party 5 Scientific Fight with Salt-Affected Areas 6 Dealing with Secondary Salinization of Soils 7 Final Considerations on Biosaline Agriculture in Romania 8 Present and Perspectives 9 Conclusion References Section II: Halophyte Distribution, Taxonomical Diversity, Flora, and Vegetation Biodiversity of Halophytes of the Arctic Zone: Circumpolar 1 Introduction 2 General Description of the Arctic Coastal Zone 3 Taxonomy, Ecology, and Distribution of Coastal Species 4 Structure and Features of the Existence of Marine Communities on the Shores of the Arctic Seas of Russia 5 Conclusion References Halophytes: A Glimpse of Indian Sundarbans - A World Heritage Site, Its Existing Status, and Sustainability 1 Introduction 2 Significance of Mangrove Vegetation: Global Scenario 3 Indian Perspective 4 Threats and Loss of Mangrove Vegetation 5 Sundarbans Scenario 6 Differential Adaptability of Mangrove Species and Threats Toward Sustainability in Indian Sundarbans 6.1 Anatomical Validation 6.2 Physiological and Biochemical Validation 6.3 Genetic Polymorphism and Sustainability 7 Conclusion References Coastal Salt Marshes 1 Introduction 2 Development and Maintenance of Coastal Salt Marshes 2.1 Relative Sea Level and Sediment Availability 2.2 Sedimentation, Erosion, and Vegetation Dynamics 2.3 Freshwater Input 3 Salt Marsh Ecological Services and Major Threats 4 Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation 4.1 Zonation 4.2 Development and Structure 4.3 Function 5 Classification of European Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation 6 Conclusions References Halophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria 1 Introduction 2 Results 3 Euhalophytic Vegetation 4 Subhalophytic Vegetation 5 Conclusions 6 Syntaxonomic Scheme of Euhalophytic and Subhalophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from Arid Inland Environments of Argentina 1 Introduction 2 Main Environmental Features and Processes of the Inland Saline Ecosystem 2.1 Salinas de Ambargasta 2.2 Pipanaco Salar 3 Main Halophytic Vegetation Features 4 Main Pedo-Geomorphic Relationships and Their Associated Vegetation 4.1 Salinas de Ambargasta 4.2 Pipanaco Salar 5 Conclusions References Halophytic Vegetation in the Pannonian Basin: Origin, Syntaxonomy, Threat, and Conservation 1 Introduction 2 Origin and Distribution 3 Syntaxonomy 3.1 Class Therosalicornietea Tx. in Tx. et Oberd. 1958 3.1.1 Alliance Salicornion prostratae Géhu 1992 Pannonian Vegetation of Annual Succulent Halophytes on Solonchak Soils in Temporarily Wet Inland Salt Pans Salicornietum prostratae Soó 1947 Corr. 1967 Salsoletum sodae Slavnić 1948 Suaedetum pannonicae (Soó 1933) Wendelberger 1943 Spergulario marginatae-Suaedetum prostratae Vicherek in Moravec et al. 1995 3.2 Class Crypsietea aculeatae Vicherek 1973 3.2.1 Alliance Cypero-Spergularion salinae Slavnić 1948 Pioneer Ephemeral Dwarf-Grass Vegetation in Periodically Flooded Saline Habitats of Subcontinental Central and Eastern Europe Crypsietum aculeatae Wenzl 1934 Heleochloëtum schoenoidis Topa 1939 Chenopodietum chenopodioidis Dítě et al. 2017 Chenopodio chenopodioidis-Atriplicetum prostratae Slavnić 1948 Corr. Gutermann and Mucina 1993 Cyperetum pannonici Wendelberger 1943 3.3 Class Festuco-Puccinellietea Soó ex Vicherek 1973 3.3.1 Alliance Puccinellion limosae Soó 1933 Pannonian Hypersaline Open Grasslands on Solonetz Soils Camphorosmetum annuae Soó 1930 Plantagini tenuiflorae-Pholiuretum pannonici Wendelberger 1943 Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1933 Matricario-Plantaginetum tenuiflorae (Soó 1933) Borhidi 1996 Hordeetum hystricis Wendelberger 1950 Bassietum sedoidis Ubrizsy 1948 Corr. Soó 1964 Chenopodio-Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1947 Lepidietum crassifolii Wenzl 1934 3.3.2 Alliance Festucion pseudovinae Soó 1933 Artemisio santonici-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947 Limonio gmelini-Artemisietum santonici (Soó 1927) Topa 1939 Achilleo setaceae-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947 Centaureo pannonicae-Festucetum pseudovinae Klika et Vlach 1937 3.3.3 Alliance Peucedano officinalis-Asterion sedifolii Borhidi 1996 Pannonian Tall-Forb Rich Subsaline Meadows on Calcareous Loess Soils Peucedano-Asteretum sedifolii Soó 1947 Corr. Borhidi 1996 3.4 Class Scorzonero-Juncetea gerardii (Vicherek 1973) Golub et al. 2001 3.4.1 Alliance Juncion gerardii Wendelberger 1943 Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows and Pastures of Southeastern Central Europe Scorzonero parviflorae-Juncetum gerardii Wendelberger 1943 Agrostio stoloniferae-Caricetum distantis Soó 1939 Caricetum divisae Slavnić 1948 Loto tenuis-Potentilletum anserinae Vicherek 1973 3.4.2 Alliance Beckmannion eruciformis Soó 1933 Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows on Heavy Clayey Soils of the Pannonian Basin Agrostio stoloniferae-Alopecuretum pratensis Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003 Agrostio stoloniferae-Beckmannietum eruciformis Rapaics ex Soó 1930 Corr. Borhidi 2010 Agrostis stolonifera-Glycerietum pedicellatae Magyar ex Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003 Eleocharito palustris-Alopecuretum geniculati (Ujvrosi 1937) Soó 1947 Rorippo-Ranunculetum lateriflori (Soó 1947) Borhidi 1996 4 Threats of Salt Vegetation: Past and Present 4.1 From Mammoths Toward to Intensively Cultivated Fields 4.2 Human Activities and Succession of Halophytic Vegetation 5 Conservation and Management 6 Conclusion References Mediterranean Halophytic Flora and Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) 1 Introduction 2 Types of Halophytic Vegetation 2.1 Aquatic Vegetation 2.2 Therophyte Salt-Pastures 2.3 Perennial Salt-Meadows 2.4 Scrubs 2.5 Riparian Groves and Shrublands 3 Areas of the Iberian Peninsula with Halophytic Flora and Vegetation 3.1 The Atlantic coast 3.2 The Mediterranean coast 3.3 The Central Zone 3.3.1 The Duero Basin 3.3.2 The Ebro depression 3.3.3 La Mancha 3.4 Interior Andalusia 3.4.1 The Guadalquivir depression 3.4.2 Depressions of the Guadiana Menor and Granada 3.5 The Semiarid Southeast 4 Halophytic Habitats in the European Union 5 Iberian Halophytic Flora Appendix I. Updated Syntaxonomical Scheme of Mediterranean Halophytic Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula Appendix II. Halophytic Flora in the Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula References Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. in Romania ́s Flora 1 Introduction 2 Material and Methods 2.1 Study Area and Sampling Design 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Results 3.2 Discussion 3.2.1 Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd 3.2.2 Armeria maritima subsp. purpurea (W. D. J. Koch) Á. Löve and D. Löve 3.2.3 Armeria maritima subsp. elongata (Hoffm.) Bonnier 3.2.4 Armeria pocutica Pawł. (A. elongata auct. rom., non (Hoffm.) K. Koch) 4 Ecology 5 Distribution Area of the Species in Romania 6 Vulnerability 7 Sozology 8 Conclusions References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from the Aralkum Area 1 Introduction 2 Geography and Geological History of the Aral Sea Basin 3 Recent History and Agriculture 4 Formation and Dynamics of the Aralkum Desert 5 Climate 6 Flora and Vegetation of Aralkum 6.1 History of Floristic Studies 6.2 Composition of the Flora 6.3 Life Form Spectrum 6.4 Geographic Analysis of the Flora 7 Halophytic Vegetation of Aralkum 7.1 Salinity 7.2 Vegetation Types 7.2.1 Annual Vegetation 7.2.2 Perennial Vegetation 7.2.3 Open Salt Deserts 7.2.4 Salt Meadows 8 Halophyte Groups 9 Ion Pattern 10 Ecological Salinity Indicator Values for Plants of the Aralkum Region 11 Conclusions References An Ecological Overview of Halophytes in Inland Areas of Central Europe 1 Introduction 2 Inland Salt-Tolerant Species 3 Inland Salt Marsh Plant Associations 4 Inland Salt Marsh Habitats 5 Conclusions References A Tentative List of Romanian Halophytes: Taxonomy, Distribution, and Ecology 1 Introduction 2 Dealing with a List of Salt-Tolerant Plants: Challenges, Limitations, and Difficulties 3 Criteria for Selecting Salt-Tolerant Species and Including Them in the Actual List 4 What Is Included in the List 5 Abbreviations in the Text 6 List of Romanian Salt-Tolerant Plants 6.1 Ranunculaceae 6.1.1 Myosurus minimus L. 6.1.2 Ranunculus pedatus Waldst. & Kit. 6.1.3 Ranunculus lateriflorus DC. 6.1.4 Ranunculus polyphyllus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. 6.2 Caryophyllaceae 6.2.1 Sagina maritima G.Don. 6.2.2 Cerastium dubium (Bast.) Guépin 6.2.3 Gypsophila muralis L. 6.2.4 Gypsophila perfoliata L. 6.2.5 Silene multiflora (Ehrh.) Pers. 6.2.6 Spergularia media (L.) C. Presl 6.2.7 Spergularia salina J. et C. Presl. 6.3 Chenopodiaceae 6.3.1 Chenopodium glaucum L. 6.3.2 Chenopodium urbicum L. 6.3.3 Chenopodium rubrum L. 6.3.4 Chenopodium chenopodioides (L.) Aellen 6.3.5 Chenopodium polyspermum L. 6.3.6 Atriplex rosea L. 6.3.7 Atriplex littoralis L. 6.3.8 Atriplex prostrata Boucher ex DC. 6.3.9 Atriplex tatarica L. 6.3.10 Halimione pedunculata (L.) Aellen 6.3.11 Halimione verrucifera (M. Bieb.) Aellen 6.3.12 Krascheninnikovia ceratoides (L.) Gueldenst. 6.3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall. 6.3.14 Camphorosma monspeliaca L. 6.3.15 Bassia prostrata (L.) G. Beck 6.3.16 Bassia hirsuta (L.) Asch. 6.3.17 Bassia sedoides (Pall.) Asch. 6.3.18 Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pall.) M. Bieb. 6.3.19 Salicornia procumbens Sm. 6.3.20 Salicornia ramosissima Woods 6.3.21 Salicornia europaea L. 6.3.22 Petrosimonia triandra (Pall.) Simonk. 6.3.23 Petrosimonia oppositifolia (Pall.) Litv. 6.3.24 ?Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall. 6.3.25 Suaeda splendens (Pourr.) Gren. et Godr. 6.3.26 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. 6.3.27 Suaeda maritima ssp. pannonica (Beck) Soó ex P.W. Ball 6.3.28 Suaeda salsa (L.) Pall. 6.3.29 Suaeda confusa Iljin 6.3.30 Salsola kali L. 6.3.31 Salsola soda L. 6.4 Polygonaceae 6.4.1 Polygonum aviculare L. 6.4.2 Polygonum maritimum L. 6.4.3 Polygonum patulum M. Bieb. 6.4.4 Rumex stenophyllus Ledeb. 6.4.5 Rumex maritimus L. 6.5 Plumbaginaceae 6.5.1 ?Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. 6.5.2 Limonium bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort. 6.5.3 Limonium tomentellum (Boiss.) Kuntze 6.5.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze 6.5.5 Limonium meyeri (Boiss.) O. Kuntze 6.5.6 Limonium vulgare Mill 6.5.7 Goniolimon tataricum (L.) Boiss 6.6 Fabaceae 6.6.1 Trigonella procumbens (Besser) Rchb. 6.6.2 Melilotus dentata (Waldst. et Kit.) Pers. 6.6.3 Melilotus altissima Thuill. 6.6.4 Trifolium micranthum Viv. 6.6.5 Trifolium fragiferum L. 6.6.6 Trifolium resupinatum L. 6.6.7 Trifolium ornithopodioides Oeder. 6.6.8 Trifolium strictum L. 6.6.9 Trifolium retusum L. 6.6.10 Trifolium angulatum Waldst. et. Kit. 6.6.11 Trifolium subterraneum L. 6.6.12 Lotus angustissimus L. 6.6.13 Lotus tenuis Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd. 6.6.14 Tetragonolobus maritimus (L.) Roth. 6.7 Lythraceae 6.7.1 Lythrum hyssopifolia L. 6.8 Santalaceae 6.8.1 Thesium arvense Horv. 6.9 Elaeagnaceae 6.9.1 Hippophaë rhamnoides L. 6.10 Euphorbiaceae 6.10.1 Euphorbia paralias L. 6.10.2 Euphorbia peplis L. 6.11 Zygophyllaceae 6.11.1 Zygophyllum fabago L. 6.11.2 Nitraria schoberi L. 6.12 Geraniaceae 6.12.1 Geranium collinum Stephan 6.13 Apiaceae 6.13.1 Eryngium maritimum L. 6.13.2 Bupleurum tenuissimum L. 6.13.3 Apium graveolens L. 6.13.4 Silaum silaus (L.) Schinz et Thell. 6.13.5 Peucedanum latifolium (M. Bieb.) DC. 6.13.6 Palimbia rediviva (Pall.) Thell. 6.14 Tamaricaceae 6.14.1 Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb. 6.15 Frankeniaceae 6.15.1 Frankenia pulverulenta L. 6.15.2 Frankenia hirsuta L. 6.16 Brassicaceae 6.16.1 Euclidium syriacum (L.) W. T Aiton. 6.16.2 Erysimum repandum L. 6.16.3 Rorippa austriaca (Crantz) Besser 6.16.4 Cardamine parviflora L. 6.16.5 Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nutt. ex Torr. et Gray 6.16.6 Lepidium crassifolium Waldst. et Kit. 6.16.7 Lepidium perfoliatum L. 6.16.8 Lepidium latifolium L. 6.16.9 Lepidium ruderale L. 6.16.10 Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch. 6.16.11 Cakile maritima Scop. ssp. euxina (Pobed.) Nyr. 6.16.12 Crambe maritima L. 6.17 Primulaceae 6.17.1 Glaux maritima L. 6.17.2 Anagallis arvensis L. 6.17.3 Samolus valerandi L. 6.18 Gentianaceae 6.18.1 Blackstonia acuminata (W. D. J. Koch et Ziz) Domin 6.18.2 Centaurium spicatum (L.) Fritsch 6.18.3 Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) Druce 6.18.4 Centaurium littorale (Turner) Gilmour ssp. uliginosum (Waldst. et Kit.) Melderis 6.19 Apocynaceae 6.19.1 Trachomitum venetum (L.) Woodson 6.20 Boraginaceae 6.20.1 Argusia sibirica (L.) Dandy 6.20.2 Heliotropium curassavicum L. 6.20.3 Heliotropium supinum L. 6.21 Verbenaceae 6.21.1 Verbena supina L. 6.22 Plantaginaceae 6.22.1 Plantago coronopus L. 6.22.2 Plantago maritima L. 6.22.3 Plantago tenuiflora Waldst. et Kit. 6.22.4 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur 6.22.5 Plantago cornuti Gouan 6.23 Scrophulariaceae 6.23.1 Veronica acinifolia L. 6.24 Asteraceae (Compositae) 6.24.1 Aster oleifolius (Lam.) Wagenitz 6.24.2 Aster sedifolius L. 6.24.3 Aster canus Waldst. et Kit. 6.24.4 Aster tripolium L. 6.24.5 Brachyactis ciliata (Ledeb.) Ledeb. 6.24.6 Inula britannica L. 6.24.7 Achillea asplenifolia Vent. 6.24.8 Matricaria recutita L. 6.24.9 Matricaria perforata Mérat 6.24.10 Artemisia santonica L. 6.24.11 Petasites spurius (Retz.) Rchb. 6.24.12 Cirsium brachycephalum Juratzka 6.24.13 Cirsium alatum (S. G. Gmel.) Bobrov 6.24.14 Serratula bulgarica Acht. et Stoj. 6.24.15 Stemmacantha serratuloides (Georgi) M. Dittrich 6.24.16 Centaurea pontica Prod. et Nyr 6.24.17 Scorzonera cana (C. A. Mey.) Hoffm. 6.24.18 Scorzonera laciniata L. 6.24.19 Scorzonera parviflora Jacq. 6.24.20 Taraxacum bessarabicum (Hornem.) Hand. - Mazz. 6.24.21 Lactuca tatarica (L.) C. A. Mey. 6.24.22 Lactuca saligna L. 6.25 Juncaginaceae 6.25.1 Triglochin maritima L. 6.25.2 Triglochin palustris L. 6.26 Potamogetonaceae 6.26.1 Potamogeton pusillus L. em. Fieber 6.27 Ruppiaceae 6.27.1 Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande 6.27.2 Ruppia maritima L. 6.28 Najadaceae 6.28.1 Najas marina L. 6.28.2 Najas minor All. 6.29 Zannichelliaceae 6.29.1 Zannichellia palustris L. 6.30 Zosteraceae 6.30.1 Zostera marina L. 6.30.2 Zostera noltii Hornem. 6.31 Liliaceae 6.31.1 Scilla autumnalis L. 6.31.2 Asparagus brachyphyllus Turcz. 6.31.3 Allium vineale L. 6.31.4 Allium paniculatum L. 6.32 Iridaceae 6.32.1 Iris spuria L. 6.32.2 Iris halophila Pall. 6.33 Juncaceae 6.33.1 Juncus acutus L. 6.33.2 Juncus bufonius L. 6.33.3 Juncus compressus Jacq. 6.33.4 Juncus gerardi Loisel. 6.33.5 Juncus maritimus Lam. 6.33.6 Juncus littoralis C.A. Mey. 6.34 Cyperaceae 6.34.1 Schoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla 6.34.2 Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (C.C. Gmel.) Palla 6.34.3 Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla 6.34.4 Scirpoides holoschoenus (L.) Sojk 6.34.5 Eleocharis uniglumis (Link) Schult. 6.34.6 Eleocharis parvula (Roem. et Schult.) Link ex Bluff, Ness et Schauer 6.34.7 Cyperus pannonicus Jacq. 6.34.8 Carex stenophylla Wahlenb. 6.34.9 Carex divisa Huds. 6.34.10 Carex hordeistichos Vill. 6.34.11 Carex secalina Willd. ex Wahlenb. 6.34.12 Carex melanostachya Willd. 6.34.13 Carex extensa Gooden. 6.34.14 Carex distans L. 6.34.15 Carex vulpina L. 6.34.16 Carex otrubae Podp. 6.35 Poaceae 6.35.1 Festuca pulchra Schur 6.35.2 Lolium rigidum Gaudin ssp. lepturoides (Boiss.) Sennen & Mauricio 6.35.3 Puccinellia distans (L.) Parl. 6.35.4 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb. 6.35.5 Puccinellia convoluta (Hornem.) Hayek 6.35.6 Puccinellia intermedia (Schur) Holmb 6.35.7 Puccinellia gigantea (Grossh.) Grossh. 6.35.8 Beckmannia eruciformis (L.) Host 6.35.9 Leymus sabulosus (M. Bieb.) Tzvelev 6.35.10 Elymus elongatus (Host) Runemark 6.35.11 Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis 6.35.12 Elymus athericus (Link) Kerguélen 6.35.13 Agropyron orientale (L.) Roem. et Schult. 6.35.14 Hordeum geniculatum All. 6.35.15 Hordeum marinum Huds. 6.35.16 Hordeum jubatum L. 6.35.17 Hordeum secalinum Schreb. 6.35.18 Hordeum murinum L. 6.35.19 Pholiurus pannonicus (Host) Trin. 6.35.20 Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubb. 6.35.21 Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench 6.35.22 Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl. 6.35.23 Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv 6.35.24 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. 6.35.25 Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir. 6.35.26 Alopecurus geniculatus L. 6.35.27 Crypsis aculeata (L.) Aiton 6.35.28 Crypsis alopecuroides (Piller et Mitterp.) Schrad. 6.35.29 Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam. 6.35.30 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 6.35.31 Apera spica-venti (L.) Beauv. 7 Concluding Remarks References Invasive Alien Flora on Coastal Mediterranean Habitats 1 Introduction 2 The Mediterranean Basin 3 Coastal Saline Habitats in the Mediterranean Basin 4 Salt Tolerance in Plants: Halophytes 5 Basic Terminology Related to Biological Invasions and Alien Species 6 Characterization of Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Coastal Habitats 6.1 Plant Adaptations in the Mediterranean Coastal Habitats 6.2 Germination Strategies 6.3 Invaded Habitats by Alien Species 7 Conclusions References Competition Between Halophytes and Invasive Species 1 Introduction 2 The Albufera Natural Park in the Context of the Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot 3 Salt Marshes (``Mallades ́ ́) as Priority Habitats in the Valencian Community 4 Invasive Species in the Study Area 5 Coexistence of Dittrichia viscosa and Limbarda crithmoides in Salt Marshes 5.1 Overview of Previous Study 5.2 Plots Description 5.3 Outstanding Results 6 Conclusions References Littoral Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Seed and Germination Strategies Linked with Salinity 3 Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity 3.1 Classification of Halophytes in Accordance with Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity 3.2 Anatomical Adaptations Observed in Halophytes Growing in Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula 4 Structure and Composition of Salt Marsh Plant Communities 4.1 Sarcocornietalia Fruticosae 4.2 Halocnemetalia Cruciati 4.3 Limonietalia 5 Phylogeographical Patterns of East-Iberian Salt Marsh Plants in the Coastal Halophytes Context 5.1 Quaternary Glaciations 5.2 Barriers and Corridors 5.3 Habitat Fragmentation 5.4 Biological Factors 6 Conservation Strategies 7 In Situ Conservation 8 Ex Situ Conservation References Endangered Halophytes and Their Conservation 1 Introduction 2 Conservation of Halophytes: Facts and Experiences in Eastern Spain 2.1 Area of Study: Salt-Affected Habitats in the Valencian Community (Spain) 2.2 The Plants Living in the Valencian Salt-Affected Habitats: The Outstanding Case of the Genus Limonium 2.3 Endangered Halophytes: The Valencian Limonium Species and Their Distribution 2.4 Plant Conservation Framework in the Valencian Community 2.5 Conservation Actions 2.6 The Plant Micro-Reserves (PMR) Network and Its Application to Salt-Affected Habitats 3 Conclusions: Future Challenges and Dilemmas References Spartina Genus in the Valencian littoral (Spain) 1 Introduction 2 Results 2.1 Distribution in the Valencian Community of S. patens 2.2 Soil Conductivity and Moisture Factors in S. patens Populations 2.3 Inventories 3 Localities 3.1 Conservation 4 Conclusions References Management and Ecosystem Services of Halophytic Vegetation 1 Introduction 2 Ecosystem Services of Saline Habitats 2.1 Provisioning Services of Halophytic Vegetation 2.1.1 Halophytes as Food and Fodder 2.1.2 Cash Crop Halophytes 2.1.3 Nutritional Lipids from Halophytes 2.1.4 Halophytic Species as Sources of Biodiesel 2.1.5 Halophytes as Source of Bioactive Compounds 2.1.6 Other Provisioning Services 2.2 Regulating Services of Halophytic Vegetation 2.2.1 Water Resources Regulation 2.2.2 Flooding Tolerance in Halophytes 2.2.3 Carbon Sequestration 2.2.4 Climate Change and Impacts on Saline Ecosystems 2.2.5 Storm Protection 2.3 Cultural Services 3 Sustainable Use and Management 3.1 Main Threats to Halophytic Ecosystems 3.1.1 Natural Factors Linked with Indirect Human Activities 3.1.2 Human Impacts on Saline Habitats 3.1.3 Agricultural Activities ́ Impact on Saline Habitats 3.2 Biological Disturbances 3.3 Sustainable Management of Saline Habitats in Relation to Ecosystem Services 4 Recommendations/Concluding Remarks References Diversity of Halophytes and Salt Tolerant Plants at the Species-, Habitats- and High-Rank Syntaxa Level in Greece 1 Introduction 2 Recent Floristic Investigations in Greece 3 Coastal Plants of Greece 4 Rare, Threatened, and Protected Taxa 5 Coastal Vegetation Syntaxa: Definitions and Wider Spatial Circumscription 6 Coastal Habitat Types (Annex I, Dir. 92/43/EEC) 7 Ecosystem Services 8 Climate Change and Food Security 9 Conclusion References Overview of Halophytes in Sudan and the Horn of Africa 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Information 1.2 Study Area 2 Objectives 3 Methods 4 Findings and Discussion 4.1 Challenges and Constraints 4.2 Financial Constraints 4.3 Political Instability 4.4 Poor Documentation and Data Collection Mechanisms 4.5 Inadequate Technological Resources and Technical Expertise 4.6 Limited Research and Capacity Building Programs 4.7 Natural and Environmental Challenges 4.8 Poor Protective Measures and Enforcement of Environmental Legislations 5 Conclusions References Ecosystem Services of Seagrasses 1 Introduction 2 The Diversity of Seagrasses 3 The Ecosystem Role of Seagrasses 4 Threats 5 The Seagrass Resources 6 The Commercial Use 7 The Transplanting and Restoration 8 The Protection and Legislation 9 Conclusions References Coastal Wetlands of the White Sea 1 Introduction 2 Results and Discussion 2.1 The Influence of Hydrological Conditions and Anthropogenic Impact on the Vegetation Cover of the White Sea and Its Coast 2.2 Synopsis of the Coastal Vegetation Types 2.3 The Spatial Structure of Vegetation in the Lagoons and Estuaries of the White Sea Rivers 3 Conclusion References An Overview of Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula 3 The Syntaxon Communities of the Class Crithmo-Staticetea in Phytoindication: A Study Case of the Kerch Peninsula 4 Partial Flora of the Crithmo-Staticetea in the Crimea 5 Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae) on the Crimean Coast 5.1 The Plant Life Cycle 5.2 The Seasonal Rhythm of Development 5.3 Populations 5.4 The Area of Distribution 5.5 Phytosociology 6 Protection, Conservation Planning, and Land Management 7 Conclusion References Section III: Structural Adaptations of Halophytes: Morphology, Anatomy, and Ultrastructure of Halophytes Ecology and Adaptation of Plants in Marine Coastal Ecosystems in the Context of Climate Change 1 Introduction 2 Abiotic Factors Determining the Zonality of Coastal Salt Marshes of the White Sea 3 Structural Organization of Vegetation on the Seashore of the Northern Part of the Holarctic (with the Example of the White S... 3.1 Taxonomic and Ecological and Geographical Features of Species 3.2 A Comparative Study of the Quantitative Indicators of Plant Leaves Growing on the White Sea Coast 4 Conclusions References Anatomical and Micromorphological Traits in Leaf Blade of Halophytes from a Brazilian Sandy Coastal Plain 1 Introduction 2 Leaf Anatomical Traits 2.1 Leaf Epidermis: Common Epidermal Cells, Stomata, and Trichomes 2.1.1 The Epidermis: Wax and Cuticle 2.1.2 Common Epidermal Cells 2.1.3 Stomata 2.1.4 Trichomes 2.2 The Mesophyll 2.2.1 Chlorophyllous Parenchyma 2.2.2 Plastids and Mitochondria 2.2.3 Water-Storage Parenchyma 2.2.4 Vascular System 3 Conclusion References Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes Within the Southern Pannonian Plain Region 1 Introduction 2 Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes 2.1 Halophytes Classification and Their Relation with Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations 2.2 Succulence 2.3 Secretory Structures 2.4 Tracheoidioblasts 2.5 Successive Cambia 2.6 Kranz Anatomy 2.7 The Xeromorphic Nature of Adaptations in Halophytes 3 Adaptations of Halophytes in the Southern Pannonian Plain Area (Northern Serbia) 3.1 Salicornia europaea L. 3.2 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort 3.3 Salsola soda L. 3.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze 3.5 Tripolium pannonicum (Jacq.) Dobrocz. 3.6 Lepidium cartilagineum (J. Mayer) Thell. 3.7 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur. 3.8 Artemisia maritima L. 3.9 Atriplex littoralis L. 3.10 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb. 3.11 Rorippa kerneri Menyh. 3.12 Hordeum hystrix Roth. 3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall. 4 Conclusion References Adaptation of Recretohalophytes to Salinity 1 Introduction 2 The Structure of Salt Glands Allows Them to Collect and Excrete Ions 2.1 Recretohalophytes Possessing Salt Glands and the Classification of Salt Glands 2.2 Ultrastructural Features of Salt Glands Facilitate Salt Secretion 3 Methods Used to Measure Salt Secretion 4 A Possible Pathway of Salt Inflow into Salt Glands 4.1 The Distribution Rules of Salt Glands Allow Them to Transport Ions Efficiently 4.2 The Cuticle Surrounding the Salt Gland Complex Helps Prevent Ion Leakage 4.3 Apoplastic, Symplastic, and Transmembrane Pathways Are Responsible for Ion Translocation from Leaf Veins to Secretory Cell... 5 The Possible Salt Secretion Mechanism of Salt Glands 5.1 Three Hypotheses to Explain Salt Secretion 5.2 Vesicle Transport May Be the Key Pathway of Salt Secretion 5.3 Candidate Ion Transporters Involved in Salt Secretion 5.4 Single Salt Gland Complexes Can Be Separated 5.5 Modern Molecular Biology Sheds Light on the Mechanism of Salt Secretion from Salt Glands 6 The Development and Evolution of Salt Glands 6.1 Development 6.2 Evolution 6.3 Candidate Genes Involved in Salt Gland Development and Evolution 7 Conclusions and Perspectives 8 Conflict of Interest References Coastal Lichens 1 Introduction 2 Freshwater Lichens 3 Marine Lichens 4 Adaptations of Marine Lichens 5 Conclusion References An Overview of Ecological Anatomy of Poaceae Halophytes from Iran 1 Introduction 2 Halophytic Poaceae in Iran 3 Effect of Salinity on Poaceae 4 Anatomical Adaptation to Salinity in Poaceae 4.1 Kranz Anatomy 4.2 Sclerenchyma Tissue 4.3 Vascular Bundles 4.4 Cortex and Pith 4.5 Bulliform Cells 4.6 Silica Bodies 4.7 Epicuticular Wax 4.8 Salt Glands 5 Conclusion References Leaf Anatomical Adaptations of Mangroves 1 Introduction 2 Stomata and Their Behavior 3 Cuticle and Its Function to Reduce Water Loss 4 Salt Gland and Salt Regulation 5 Mesophyll and Its Functions 6 Water Storage Tissue 7 Cork-Warts and Internal Airflow 8 Conclusion References Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes: A Review 1 Introduction: Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants 2 Review of General Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes 2.1 Succulence 2.2 Mucilage 2.3 Cell Sap 2.4 The Palisade Tissue 2.5 The Intercellular Spaces 2.6 Wax 2.7 Tomentum 2.8 Coriaceous and Glossy Leaves 2.9 Stomata 2.10 Tracheoidioblasts (Spiral Cells, Tracheids) and Mangrove Tracheids 2.11 Stereids (Spicular Cells, Sclereids, Idioblasts) 2.12 Lignification: The Special Case of Successive (Additional, Supernumerary) Cambia 2.13 Salt-Secreting Structures 2.13.1 Salt Glands of Plumbaginaceae 2.13.2 Salt Glands of Tamaricaceae 2.13.3 Salt Glands of Frankeniaceae 2.13.4 Salt Glands of Mangroves 2.13.5 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Primulaceae Family 2.13.6 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Poaceae (Gramineae) 2.13.7 Salt Hairs (Vezicular Hairs, Salt Bladders, Bladders) from Chenopodiaceae 2.13.8 Epidermal Bladder Cells from Aizoaceae (Mesembryanthemaceae) 2.13.9 Other Salt Glands (Cressa cretica, Ipomoea pes-caprae, and Lavatera arborea) 2.14 Kranz Anatomy Structures 2.15 Bulliform Cells 3 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes from (Nontropical) Salt-Marsh Formations 4 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Littoral (Tropical, Nontropical) Halophytes (Seashore Plants, Sea-Coastal Plants... 5 Mangroves (Tropical Coastal Halophytes, Littoral Swamp Forest, Tidal Forest) 6 Conclusions References Morphological Variability of Halophytes: Salicornioideae on Iberian Peninsula 1 Introduction 2 Vegetative Structure 2.1 Leaves 2.1.1 Leaf Anatomy 2.2 Stomata 2.3 Stem Anatomy 3 Flower Structure 3.1 Perianth, Androecium, and Gynoecium 3.2 Seeds and Embryos 3.3 Arthrocnemum Seeds 3.4 Halocnemum Seeds 3.5 Halopeplis Seeds 3.6 Microcnemum Seeds 3.7 Salicornia Seeds 3.8 Sarcocornia Seeds 4 General Description, Nomenclature, Habitat, Ecology, and Distribution 4.1 Arthrocnemum Moq. 4.1.1 Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) K. Koch Habitat Distribution 4.2 Halocnemum M. Bieb. 4.2.1 Halocnemum cruciatum (Forssk.) Tod. Habitat 4.2.2 Distribution 4.3 Halopeplis Bunge ex Ung.-Sternb. 4.3.1 Halopeplis (Vahl) Ung.-Sternb. ex Ces., Pass. & Gibelli Habitat Distribution 4.4 Microcnemum Ung.-Sternb. 4.4.1 Microcnemum coralloides (Loscos & J. Pardo) Buen Habitat Distribution 4.5 Salicornia L., Sp. Pl. 4.5.1 Salicornia Habitat Distribution 4.6 Sarcocornia A. J. Scott. 4.6.1 Sarcocornia Habitat Distribution 5 Conclusion Syntaxonomical Appendix References A Comparative Account of the Morphological and Anatomical Characteristics of Three Medicinal Halophytes 1 Introduction 2 General Morphological Features of Plumbago 3 Microscopic Evaluation of Lamina 4 Stomatal Complex 5 Stomatal Development 6 Stomatal Density 7 Licopoli Glands or Mettenian Glands 8 Exo-recretohalophytes 9 Density and Distribution of Salt Glands 10 Structure of the Salt Gland 11 Morphology of Roots 12 Microscopic Evaluation of Roots of Plu