Handbook of Food Toxicology (Food Science and Technology, 119)

From health and economic consequences to exposure assessment and detoxification, this reference comprehensively covers the formation, characteristics, and control of various toxins that occur in the production, storage, handling, and preparation of food. The author discusses toxin sources, mechanisms, routes of exposure and absorption, and their chemical and biochemical components to prevent contamination of food products and reduce epidemics of foodborne disease. The book contains more than 3000 references to facilitate further research, as well as recent guidelines from the FDA and World Health Organization regarding food hygiene and safety. Handbook of Food Toxicology......Page 1 Dedication......Page 2 Preface......Page 3 Contents......Page 6 1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 8 Contents......Page 0 1.2 HISTORY OF TOXICOLOGY......Page 9 1.3 SCOPE/DIVERSITY OF TOXICOLOGY......Page 10 Occupational/Industrial Toxicology......Page 11 Teratogenesis......Page 12 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF TOXICANTS......Page 13 1.6 FOOD TOXICOLOGY AND THE SCOPE OF THE BOOK......Page 14 REFERENCES......Page 15 2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 17 2.2 TYPES AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF EXPOSURE......Page 18 2.2.1 Exposure Assessment......Page 19 2.3 ROUTES OF TOXICANT EXPOSURE AND ABSORPTION......Page 20 2.3.1 Percutaneous Exposure......Page 21 2.3.3 Oral Route......Page 22 2.4 MECHANISMS OF TOXICANT ABSORPTION......Page 23 Degree of Ionization......Page 24 Donnan Distribution Effect......Page 26 Active Transport......Page 27 2.5.1 Effect of Blood Flow......Page 28 2.5.4 Chemical Factors Affecting Absorption......Page 29 2.6.1 Molecular Targets......Page 30 2.6.2 Subcellular Targets......Page 31 2.6.3 Cellular Targets......Page 32 2.7 BIOCHEMICAL EFFECTS RESULTING IN TOXIC INJURY......Page 33 Interference of the Uptake of Essential Compounds in the Cells or Tissues......Page 34 2.7.5 Interference with Genetic Material and Function......Page 35 2.8.3 Tissue Localization......Page 36 2.8.4 Volume of Distribution......Page 37 2.9 METABOLISM/BIOTRANSFORMATION OF TOXICANTS......Page 38 2.10.3 Intracellular Binding Proteins......Page 40 2.11.1 Renal/Urinary Excretion......Page 41 2.11.2 Hepatic/Biliary Excretion......Page 42 REFERENCES......Page 43 3.2 NEUROTOXICITY......Page 46 3.2.2 Functional Toxicity......Page 47 3.2.3 Neurotoxicants......Page 48 3.4.1 Types of Liver Injury......Page 49 3.5 NEPHROTOXICITY......Page 50 3.6 HEMATOTOXICITY......Page 51 3.7.1 Interference with Bone Metabolism......Page 52 3.9 IMMUNOTOXICITY......Page 53 3.10 HYPERSENSITIVITY AND ALLERGY......Page 54 REFERENCES......Page 56 4.1.1 Characteristics......Page 58 4.1.2 The Carcinogenic Process......Page 60 4.1.3 Types of Chemical Carcinogens......Page 63 4.1.4 Factors Affecting Carcinogenesis......Page 64 Age......Page 65 Chemical Modifiers......Page 66 4.1.5 Therapy......Page 67 Base-Pair Addition or Deletion......Page 69 4.2.2 Mechanisms of Mutagenicity......Page 70 Alkylating Agents......Page 71 4.2.4 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Repair in Mutagenesis......Page 72 4.3 TERATOGENESIS......Page 73 Cytotoxic Teratogens......Page 74 Transport and Access to Developing Embryo......Page 75 REFERENCES......Page 76 5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 79 5.2 SITES OF BIOTRANSFORMATIONS......Page 82 5.3 BIOTRANSFORMATION ENZYME SYSTEMS......Page 83 Cytochrome P-450–Dependent Monooxygenase System......Page 84 Microsomal Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)-Containing Monooxygenase......Page 85 5.3.2 Phase II Enzymes......Page 86 Sulfotransferases......Page 87 Glutathione S-Transferases......Page 88 5.4 INDUCTION OF BIOTRANSFORMATION ENZYMES......Page 89 5.6 BIOTRANSFORMATION REACTIONS......Page 90 Epoxidation......Page 91 Aromatic Hydroxylation......Page 92 Alicyclic Hydroxylation......Page 94 N-, S-, and O-Dealkylation......Page 95 N-Oxidation......Page 96 Desulfuration......Page 98 Amine Oxidation......Page 99 Reduction Reactions......Page 101 Nitro and Azo Reduction......Page 102 Hydrolysis......Page 103 5.6.2 Phase II Reactions......Page 106 Glucuronides......Page 108 Glucosides......Page 109 Sulfate (Ethereal) Conjugation......Page 110 Methylation (Alkylation)......Page 112 Phosphate Conjugation......Page 115 Glutathione Conjugation......Page 116 5.7 FACTORS AFFECTING XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM......Page 119 REFERENCES......Page 122 6.1 MEASUREMENT OF TOXICANTS......Page 123 6.1.1 Biological Techniques or Bioassays......Page 124 Chromatography......Page 126 Adsorption Chromatographic Techniques......Page 127 Gas Chromatography or Gas-Liquid Partition Chromatography......Page 128 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 129 6.1.3 Binding Assays......Page 130 6.2 MEASUREMENT OF TOXICITY......Page 131 6.2.1 Toxicological Units......Page 133 6.2.2 Dose-Response Relationships......Page 135 6.2.3 Animal Toxicity Tests......Page 139 Subacute Toxicity Testing......Page 141 Subchronic Toxicity Testing......Page 142 In Vitro and Other Short-Term Tests......Page 143 6.3 RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 146 6.4.1 World Health Organization......Page 150 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives......Page 151 International Program on Chemical Safety......Page 153 6.4.2 United States Food Safety System......Page 154 6.4.3 The European Union......Page 156 6.5.1 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) Principles......Page 158 Principle 7......Page 159 6.6 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND LONGITUDINALLY INTEGRATED......Page 162 6.7 THE ROLE OF INDUSTRY AND ACADEMIA......Page 163 REFERENCES......Page 164 7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 167 7.2 WATER......Page 169 Fructose Intolerance......Page 170 7.3.2 Diabetes Mellitus......Page 171 7.3.4 Raffinose-Family Oligosaccharides......Page 172 7.4.1 Amino Acid Toxicity......Page 173 7.4.3 Amino Acid Antagonism......Page 174 7.5 DIETARY FAT AND FATTY ACIDS......Page 175 7.5.2 Toxic Fatty Acids......Page 176 7.5.4 Increased Intake of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid......Page 177 7.6.3 Calcium......Page 178 7.6.5 Magnesium......Page 179 7.6.6 Iron......Page 180 7.6.7 Copper......Page 181 7.6.9 Manganese......Page 183 7.6.10 Selenium......Page 184 7.6.11 Fluoride......Page 185 7.6.13 Iodine......Page 186 7.6.16 Silicon......Page 187 7.7 VITAMINS......Page 188 7.7.1 Vitamin A (Retinol)......Page 189 7.7.2 Vitamin D (Calciferol)......Page 191 7.7.3 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)......Page 193 7.7.5 Interactions of Vitamins A, D, E, and K......Page 196 7.7.7 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)......Page 197 7.7.8 Niacin......Page 199 7.7.9 Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)......Page 200 7.7.10 Folic Acid (Folacin)......Page 201 7.7.11 Pantothenic Acid......Page 202 7.7.12 Biotin......Page 203 7.7.15 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)......Page 204 7.8 MISCELLANEOUS FACTORS......Page 206 REFERENCES......Page 213 8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 222 8.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR USE......Page 223 8.3 SAFETY ASSESSMENT......Page 224 8.4 TYPES OF FOOD ADDITIVES......Page 225 8.5 FOOD COLORS......Page 228 8.5.1 History......Page 229 Colorants Subject to Certification......Page 231 8.5.3 Toxicological Characteristics of Colorants Subject to Certification......Page 233 FD&C Red No. 3......Page 234 FD&C Red No. 40......Page 237 FD&C Green No. 3......Page 238 FD&C Blue No. 1......Page 240 FD&C Yellow No. 5......Page 241 8.5.4 Toxicological Characteristics of Colorants Exempt from Certification......Page 242 Cochineal Extract (Carmine, Carminic Acid)......Page 243 8.5.5 Food Uses and Consumption Patterns......Page 244 8.5.6 Food Colorants and Hyperkinesis......Page 247 8.6.1 Cyclamates......Page 249 8.6.2 Saccharin......Page 251 8.6.3 Aspartame......Page 253 8.7.1 Free Radical Chemical Characteristics......Page 255 8.7.2 Butylated Hydroxyanisole......Page 256 8.7.3 Butylated Hydroxytoluene......Page 258 8.7.5 Tertiary Butyl Hydroquinone......Page 260 8.8.1 Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates......Page 261 8.8.4 Acetic Acid and Its Salts......Page 265 8.8.7 Fumaric Acid and Its Salts......Page 266 8.8.10 Adipic Acid......Page 267 8.8.11 Citric Acid and Its Salts......Page 268 8.9 FLAVORING AGENTS......Page 270 8.9.7 Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)......Page 272 8.10.1 Benzoic Acid and Its Salts......Page 273 8.10.3 Sorbates......Page 274 8.10.6 Dimethyl and Diethyl Pyrocarbonates......Page 275 REFERENCES......Page 276 9.2 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS......Page 288 9.2.2 Occurrence......Page 289 9.2.3 Metabolism......Page 291 9.2.4 Toxicity......Page 292 9.3.3 Occurrence......Page 293 Mutagenicity......Page 294 Carcinogenicity......Page 296 9.4 PREMELANOIDINS FROM MAILLARD REACTION......Page 298 9.5 LYSINOALANINE......Page 301 9.6 OXIDIZED SULFUR-CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS......Page 302 9.7 RANCID FATS AND OILS......Page 303 9.8 THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF FATS AND LIPIDS......Page 305 9.9 FOOD IRRADIATION......Page 306 9.9.2 Effects on Food Components......Page 307 Lipids......Page 308 9.9.3 Effect on Microorganisms......Page 309 9.9.5 Applications......Page 310 9.9.6 Toxicological Considerations......Page 312 9.10.2 N-Nitrosamines......Page 314 REFERENCES......Page 319 10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 324 10.2 PROTEINASE (PROTEASE) INHIBITORS......Page 325 10.2.2 Kunitz Inhibitors......Page 326 10.3 AMYLASE INHIBITORS......Page 333 10.4 LIPASE INHIBITORS......Page 334 10.5 LECTINS (PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS)......Page 335 10.6 PHYTATE......Page 337 10.7 TANNINS (POLYPHENOLS)......Page 340 10.8 CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES......Page 341 10.9 GLUCOSINOLATES......Page 345 10.10 FAVIC AGENTS (FAVISM)......Page 347 10.11 LATHYROGENS (LATHYRISM)......Page 348 10.12 TOXIC AMINO ACIDS......Page 350 10.13.2 Cyclopropene Fatty Acids......Page 351 10.14 SAPONINS......Page 352 10.15 POTATO GLYCOALKALOIDS......Page 354 10.16 OXALATES......Page 356 10.17.1 Gossypol......Page 357 10.17.2 Alkylated Catechols and Related Phenols......Page 358 10.17.3 Cycasin and Related Azoxyglycosides......Page 359 10.17.4 Safrole......Page 360 10.18 VASOACTIVE (PRESSOR) AMINES......Page 362 10.19 PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES......Page 364 10.20 METHYLXANTHINES......Page 365 10.21 PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS......Page 369 10.22 PHYTOESTROGENS......Page 371 10.23 ALLERGENS......Page 373 10.24 ANTIVITAMINS......Page 375 10.25.4 Menthol......Page 377 10.26 REMOVAL OF TOXICANTS AND ANTINUTRIENTS......Page 378 10.27 SUMMARY......Page 380 REFERENCES......Page 381 11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 390 Historical Aspects......Page 393 Structural Diversity and Chemical Characteristics......Page 394 Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 396 Analytical Methods......Page 397 Biosynthesis......Page 398 Biotransformation......Page 400 Occurrence in Foods......Page 405 Acute Toxicity in Animals......Page 407 Mutagenicity......Page 409 Carcinogenicity......Page 410 Teratogenicity......Page 411 Control and Detoxification......Page 412 11.2.2 Sterigmatocystins......Page 414 11.2.3 Ochratoxins......Page 416 Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 417 Toxicological Characteristics......Page 418 11.2.5 Aspergillic Acid......Page 420 11.2.11 Gliotoxin......Page 421 Occurrence in Foods......Page 422 Metabolism......Page 423 11.3.3 Penicillic Acid......Page 424 11.3.6 Luteoskyrin and Islanditoxin......Page 427 11.3.10 Rubratoxins......Page 428 11.4.1 Zearalenone......Page 429 11.4.3 Trichothecenes......Page 431 Toxicological Characteristics......Page 437 Regulation......Page 439 11.5 MYCOTOXINS OF ALTERNARIA SPECIES......Page 441 11.6 MYCOTOXINS OF CLAVICEPS SPECIES......Page 442 11.7.2 Slaframine......Page 445 11.7.4 Emodin......Page 446 11.9 REGULATORY ASPECTS......Page 447 REFERENCES......Page 448 12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 460 12.1.2 Food-Borne Toxicoinfections......Page 461 12.1.3 Food-Borne Intoxications......Page 462 12.2 BACTERIAL PATHOGENICITY......Page 474 12.2.1 General Secretory Pathway......Page 476 Type V Secretion (Autotransporters)......Page 477 Type II Secretion System (Two-Step Secretion)......Page 478 Type IV Secretion Systems (Conjugal Transfer Systems)......Page 479 Type III Secretion Systems (Contact-Dependent Secretion)......Page 480 12.3 SALMONELLA SPECIES SALMONELLOSIS)......Page 481 12.3.1 Organism......Page 482 12.3.2 Pathogenesis......Page 484 Enteric Fever......Page 490 Gastroenteritis......Page 492 12.3.4 Sources......Page 493 12.3.5 Outbreaks......Page 495 12.3.6 Prevention and Control......Page 496 12.4.1 Organism......Page 499 12.4.2 Pathogenesis......Page 501 12.4.3 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment......Page 503 12.4.4 Sources......Page 504 12.5 SHIGELLA SPECIES (SHIGELLOSIS)......Page 505 12.5.1 Organism......Page 506 Entry into Epithelial Cells......Page 507 Cell-to-Cell Spread......Page 509 Toxins......Page 510 Miscellaneous Virulence Factors......Page 512 12.5.3 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment......Page 513 12.5.6 Control......Page 514 12.6.1 Organism......Page 516 Entry and Spread into Mammalian Cells......Page 518 Phospholipases......Page 521 Intra- and Intercellular Spreading......Page 522 12.6.3 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment......Page 525 12.6.4 Source and Modes of Transmission......Page 526 12.6.5 Outbreaks......Page 527 12.7.1 Organism......Page 530 Groups E, F, G, H, and K–U......Page 532 12.7.2 Pathogenesis......Page 533 Invasion and Multiplication in Tissue (Strep Throat,......Page 534 Toxin-Mediated Diseases (Scarlet Fever, Toxic Shock Syndrome)......Page 536 12.7.3 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment......Page 537 12.7.5 Outbreaks......Page 538 12.8.1 Organism......Page 539 12.8.2 Pathogenesis......Page 540 12.8.3 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment......Page 546 12.8.5 Outbreaks......Page 547 12.9.2 Pathogenesis......Page 548 12.9.4 Sources......Page 551 12.10 PLESIOMONAS SHIGELLOIDES......Page 552 12.11 BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (“MAD COW DISEASE”)......Page 554 12.11.1 Origin......Page 555 12.11.2 Outbreaks......Page 557 12.11.4 Diagnosis......Page 558 12.11.5 Causative Agent......Page 560 12.11.6 Subacute Presenile Dementia and Variant Subacute Presenile Dementia......Page 561 12.11.7 Prevention......Page 563 12.12.3......Page 566 REFERENCES......Page 567 13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 585 13.3 PATHOGENESIS......Page 589 13.4 TOXIGENICITY......Page 590 13.6 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ENTEROTOXINS......Page 593 13.6.1 Organism......Page 594 13.6.2 Enterotoxins......Page 596 Genetic Control......Page 597 Biochemical Properties......Page 598 13.6.4 Detection......Page 601 13.6.5 Foods Associated with Staphylococcal Poisoning......Page 602 13.6.6 Outbreaks of Staphylococcal Food Poisoning......Page 603 13.6.7 Prevention......Page 605 13.7 BACILLUS CEREUS POISONING......Page 606 Emetic Toxin......Page 607 Diarrheal Enterotoxin......Page 608 13.7.3 Symptoms and Diagnosis......Page 610 13.7.6 Outbreaks of Intoxication......Page 613 13.7.7 Prevention......Page 614 13.8.1 Organism......Page 615 13.8.2 Toxin......Page 616 13.8.4 Detection......Page 620 13.8.5 Foods Associated with Poisoning Outbreaks......Page 621 13.8.7 Prevention......Page 622 Food-Borne Botulism......Page 623 13.9.2 Organism......Page 624 Classification......Page 625 Stability......Page 626 Oral Toxicity......Page 627 Intestinal Absorption......Page 628 Mode of Action......Page 629 13.9.4 Symptoms and Diagnosis......Page 630 Fish and Fish Products......Page 632 Factors Affecting Toxin Formation in Foods......Page 634 13.9.6 Outbreaks......Page 635 Temperature......Page 637 Destruction of Spores......Page 638 13.10 VIBRIO TOXINS......Page 639 Organism......Page 640 Mode of Action......Page 641 Detection......Page 643 13.10.2 Nonagglutinable Vibrio Toxin......Page 644 Organism......Page 645 Foods Incriminated in the Poisoning......Page 646 13.10.4 Vibrio vulnificus......Page 647 13.10.5 Other Vibrios......Page 648 13.11 ESCHERICHIA COLI INTOXICATIONS......Page 649 13.11.2 Serological Characteristics......Page 650 13.11.3 Enterotoxigenic......Page 651 Heat-Labile Toxin......Page 652 Heat-Stable Toxin......Page 653 13.11.4 Enteropathogenic......Page 654 13.11.6 Enteroaggregative......Page 655 13.11.7 Diffusely Adhering......Page 657 Locus of Enterocyte Effacement......Page 658 Symptoms......Page 659 Outbreaks......Page 660 13.12 BONGKREK TOXINS......Page 663 13.13 CONCLUSIONS......Page 665 REFERENCES......Page 670 14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 688 14.2.1 Dinoflagellates......Page 689 14.2.3 Poisonous Echinoderms (Sea Cucumbers, Sea Urchins)......Page 690 14.2.4 Poisonous Mollusks......Page 692 14.2.5 Poisonous Arthropods (Crabs and Lobsters)......Page 694 14.2.7 Poisonous Marine Mammals......Page 695 Cyclostomotoxic Fish......Page 696 Clupeotoxic Fish......Page 697 Scombrotoxic Fish (Histamine Poisoning)......Page 698 Ichthyohemotoxic Fish......Page 700 Ichthyohepatotoxic Fish......Page 701 Miscellaneous Toxic Fish......Page 702 Transvectors of Paralytic Shellfish Poisons......Page 703 Peridinium Species......Page 704 Occurrence......Page 705 Chemical Characteristics......Page 706 Mode of Action......Page 709 Analytical Methods......Page 710 Variation in Toxicity......Page 712 Control......Page 713 14.3.2 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 714 14.3.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisons......Page 718 14.3.4 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 719 14.3.5 Ciguatera Fish Toxins (Ciguatoxin)......Page 722 Transvectors......Page 723 Chemical Characteristics......Page 726 Mode of Action......Page 727 Symptoms......Page 729 Tetrodotoxic Fish......Page 730 Mode of Action......Page 732 Toxicity......Page 734 14.3.7 Palytoxin......Page 735 14.3.9 Miscellaneous Phycotoxins......Page 737 REFERENCES......Page 743 15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 755 15.2 SYMPTOMS OF MUSHROOM POISONING......Page 759 15.4 TYPES OF POISONING......Page 760 Chemical Characteristics......Page 761 Analysis......Page 763 Mechanism of Action......Page 764 Mechanism of Action......Page 765 15.5.3 Gyromitrin......Page 767 Chemical Characteristics......Page 768 Symptoms of Poisoning......Page 769 Chemical Characteristics......Page 770 15.7.1 Psilocybin and Psilocin......Page 771 15.7.2 Bufotenine and Related Compounds......Page 772 15.8.1 Mushrooms with Disulfiramlike Activity (Coprinus Syndrome)......Page 773 15.9 MUSHROOMS CAUSING GASTROINTESTINAL DISTURBANCES......Page 774 15.10 MUSHROOMS WITH OBSCURE TOXICITY PATTERN......Page 775 REFERENCES......Page 778 16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 782 Soil......Page 783 Agricultural Chemicals and Fertilizers......Page 784 Lead......Page 785 Cadmium......Page 788 Mercury......Page 789 Arsenic......Page 790 Selenium......Page 791 Aluminum......Page 792 Nitrates......Page 793 16.3 RADIONUCLIDES......Page 794 16.3.2 Sources of Exposure......Page 795 16.3.3 Physiological Effects......Page 798 Ceramics......Page 799 Plastics......Page 800 16.4.2 Source of Contamination......Page 801 16.4.3 Migration and Assessment of Dietary Exposure......Page 802 Vinyl Chloride......Page 803 Antistastic Agents......Page 804 16.4.5 Regulatory Aspects......Page 805 REFERENCES......Page 806 17.2 PESTICIDES......Page 812 17.2.1 History and Development of Pesticides......Page 813 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides......Page 815 Thiocyanate Insecticides......Page 818 Synergists......Page 819 17.2.4 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 820 Liver......Page 827 Kidney......Page 828 Pesticide Interactions......Page 830 Estrogenicity......Page 831 Carcinogenicity......Page 832 Mutagenicity......Page 835 17.2.5 Residues in Food......Page 837 17.2.6 Acceptable Daily Intakes......Page 841 17.2.7 Residue Monitoring Program......Page 842 17.3.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls......Page 844 17.3.3 Polychlorinated Dibenzo- p-Dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans......Page 847 17.3.5 Monocyclic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 848 17.3.6 Potential Human Health Hazards......Page 851 REFERENCES......Page 853 18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 864 18.2.6 Somatotropins......Page 866 18.4 SOURCES OF DRUG RESIDUES......Page 867 18.6 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF DRUG RESIDUES......Page 870 18.6.1 Hypersensitivity and Allergic......Page 871 18.6.2 Development of Resistance by......Page 872 18.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS......Page 875 REFERENCES......Page 876