Handbook of Fillers, The Definitive User's Guide and Databook of Properties, Effects and Uses (Materials Science)

This is an exhaustive reference of all solids capable of changing the physical and chemical properties of materials. Stimulated by the fact that materials can be improved almost beyond recognition by new grades of fillers, this one volume presents the information needed to market, develop, select, manufacture, and apply these versatile materials. A single volume contains all the fundamentals and the latest advances in fillers technology and the products in which they are used. The book is divided into three sections. The first is a databank of fillers which includes the most comprehensive set of data ever published. The second section is designed to show how material properties can be tailored to the needs of products. Coupled with observations and theories from current research, this section serves to reconcile controversial findings and provides an understanding of the complex issues of filler applications. The last section concentrates on the application of fillers on an industrial scale. Cover Page......Page 1 Handbook of Fillers......Page 2 Table of Contents......Page 5 Preface......Page 18 Acknowledgment......Page 20 1.1 Expectation from Fillers......Page 23 1.2 Typical Filler Properties......Page 28 1.3 Definitions......Page 29 1.4 Classification......Page 32 1.5 Market and Trends......Page 33 2.0 Sources of Fillers, Their Chemical Composition, Properties, and Morphology......Page 36 2.1.1 Aluminum Flakes and Powder......Page 37 2.1.2 Aluminum Borate Whiskers......Page 40 2.1.3 Aluminum Oxide......Page 41 2.1.4 Aluminum Trihydroxide......Page 43 2.1.5 Anthracite......Page 46 2.1.6 Antimonate of Sodium......Page 47 2.1.7 Antimony Pentoxide......Page 48 2.1.8 Antimony Trioxide......Page 50 2.1.9 Apatite......Page 52 2.1.10 Ash, Fly......Page 53 2.1.11 Attapulgite......Page 54 2.1.12 Barium Metaborate......Page 56 2.1.13 Barium Sulfate......Page 57 2.1.14 Barium & Strontium Sulfates......Page 62 2.1.15 Barium Titanate......Page 63 2.1.16 Bentonite......Page 64 2.1.17 Beryllium Oxide......Page 66 2.1.18 Boron Nitride......Page 67 2.1.19 Calcium Carbonate......Page 69 2.1.20 Calcium Hydroxide......Page 80 2.1.21 Calcium Sulfate......Page 82 2.1.22 Carbon Black......Page 84 2.1.23 Ceramic Beads......Page 94 2.1.24 Clay......Page 97 2.1.25 Copper......Page 99 2.1.26 Cristobalite......Page 100 2.1.27 Diatomaceous Earth......Page 102 2.1.28 Dolomite......Page 106 2.1.29 Ferrites......Page 107 2.1.30 Feldspar......Page 108 2.1.31 Glass Beads......Page 109 2.1.32 Gold......Page 113 2.1.33 Graphite......Page 114 2.1.34 Hydrous Calcium Silicate......Page 118 2.1.35 Iron Oxide......Page 119 2.1.36 Kaolin......Page 121 2.1.37 Lithopone......Page 126 2.1.38 Magnesium Oxide......Page 127 2.1.39 Magnesium Hydroxide......Page 128 2.1.40 Metal-Containing Conductive Materials......Page 129 2.1.41 Mica......Page 134 2.1.42 Molybdenum......Page 138 2.1.43 Molybdenum Disulfide......Page 139 2.1.44 Nickel......Page 140 2.1.45 Perlite......Page 142 2.1.46 Polymeric Fillers......Page 144 2.1.47 Pumice......Page 149 2.1.48 Pyrophyllite......Page 150 2.1.49 Rubber Particles......Page 151 2.1.50 Sepiolite......Page 152 2.1.51 Silica......Page 153 2.1.51.1 Fumed Silica......Page 154 2.1.51.2 Fused Silica......Page 160 2.1.51.3 Precipitated Silica......Page 161 2.1.51.4 Quartz......Page 164 2.1.51.5 Sand......Page 166 2.1.51.6 Silica Gel......Page 168 2.1.52 Silver Powder and Flakes......Page 169 2.1.53 Slate Flour......Page 171 2.1.54 Talc......Page 172 2.1.55 Titanium Dioxide......Page 176 2.1.56 Tunsten......Page 186 2.1.57 Vermiculite......Page 187 2.1.58 Wood Flour and Similar Materials......Page 188 2.1.59 Wollastonite......Page 189 2.1.60 Zeolites......Page 192 2.1.61 Zinc Borate......Page 193 2.1.62 Zinc Oxide......Page 194 2.1.63 Zinc Stannate......Page 197 2.1.64 Zinc Sulfide......Page 198 2.2.1 Aramid Fibers......Page 200 2.2.2 Carbon Fibers......Page 202 2.2.3 Cellulose Fibers......Page 206 2.2.4 Glass Fibers......Page 209 3.1 Filler Packaging......Page 225 3.2 External Transportation......Page 227 3.3 Filler Receiving......Page 228 3.4 Storage......Page 230 3.5 In-Plant Conveying......Page 232 3.6 Semi-Bulk Unloading Systems......Page 237 3.7 Bag Handling Equipment......Page 238 3.8 Blending......Page 239 3.9 Feeding......Page 240 3.10 Drying......Page 242 3.11 Dispersion......Page 244 4.3 Ash Content......Page 253 4.7 CTAB Surface Area......Page 254 4.10 Electrical Properties......Page 255 4.16 Hiding Power......Page 256 4.21 Oil Absorption......Page 257 4.26 Resistivity of Aqueous Extract......Page 258 4.31 Tamped Volume......Page 259 4.35 WATER-SOLUBLE SULFATES, CHLORIDES AND NITRATES......Page 260 5.1 Density......Page 263 5.2 Particle Size......Page 267 5.3 Particle Size Distribution......Page 268 5.5 Particle Surface Morphology and Roughness......Page 273 5.6 Specific Surface Area......Page 275 5.7 Porosity......Page 276 5.8 Particle-Particle Interaction and Spacing......Page 277 5.9 Agglomerates......Page 279 5.10 Aggregates and Structure......Page 281 5.11 Flocculation and Sedimentation......Page 283 5.12 Aspect Ratio......Page 285 5.13 Packing Volume......Page 286 5.14 pH......Page 291 5.15 z-Potential......Page 292 5.16 Surface Energy......Page 293 5.17 Moisture......Page 297 5.18 Absorption of Liquids and Swelling......Page 300 5.20 Oil Absorption......Page 302 5.21 Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Properties......Page 303 5.22 Optical Properties......Page 306 5.23 Refractive Index......Page 307 5.24 Friction Properties......Page 308 5.25 Hardness......Page 309 5.26 Intumescent Properties......Page 310 5.27 Thermal Conductivity......Page 311 5.28 Thermal Expansion Coefficient......Page 312 5.30 Electrical Properties......Page 313 5.31 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES273......Page 317 6.1 Reactivity......Page 327 6.2 Chemical Groups on the Filler Surface......Page 330 6.3 Filler Surface Modification......Page 334 6.4 Effect of Filler Modification on Material Properties......Page 348 6.5 Resistance to Various Chemical Materials......Page 352 6.6 Cure in Filler's Presence......Page 353 6.7 Polymerization in Filler's Presemce......Page 358 6.8 Grafting......Page 359 6.9 Crosslink Density......Page 360 6.10 Reaction Kinetics......Page 361 6.11 Molecular Mobility......Page 363 7.1 Particle Distribution in Matrix......Page 369 7.2 Orientation of Filler Particle in a Matrix......Page 373 7.3 Voids......Page 378 7.4 Matrix-Filler Interaction......Page 380 7.5 Chemical Interactions......Page 381 7.6 Other Interactions......Page 385 7.7 Interphase Organization......Page 389 7.8 Interfacial Adhesion......Page 391 7.9 Interphase Thickness......Page 392 7.10 Filler-Chain Links......Page 394 7.11 Chain Dynamics......Page 395 7.12 Bound Rubber......Page 396 7.13 Debonding......Page 402 7.14 Mechanism of Reinforcement......Page 406 7.15 Benefits of Organization on Molecular Level......Page 411 8.1 Tensile Strength and Elongation......Page 417 8.2 Tensile Yield Stress......Page 424 8.3 Elastic Modulus......Page 429 8.4 Flexural Strength and Modulus......Page 432 8.5 Impact Resistance......Page 434 8.6 Hardness......Page 436 8.7 Tear Strength......Page 439 8.8 Compressive Strength......Page 440 8.9 Fracture Resistance......Page 441 8.10 Wear......Page 448 8.11 Friction......Page 451 8.12 Abrasion......Page 452 8.13 Scratch Resistance......Page 454 8.14 Fatigue......Page 455 8.15 Failure......Page 462 8.16 Adhesion......Page 464 8.18 Shrinkage......Page 466 8.19 Warpage......Page 470 8.20 Compression Set......Page 471 8.21 Load Transfer......Page 473 8.22 Residual Stress......Page 475 8.23 Creep......Page 476 9.1 Viscosity......Page 483 9.2 Flow......Page 487 9.3 Flow Induced Filler Orientation......Page 490 9.4 Torque......Page 492 9.5 Viscoelasticity......Page 493 9.6 Dynamic Mechanical Behavior......Page 494 9.7 Complex Viscosity......Page 496 9.9 Elongational Viscosity......Page 500 9.11 Yield Value......Page 503 10.1 Crystallinity......Page 507 10.2 Crystallization Behavior......Page 509 10.3 Nucleation......Page 512 10.4 Crystal Size......Page 514 10.5 Spherulites......Page 515 10.6 Transcrystallinity......Page 517 10.7 Orientation......Page 519 11.1 Irradiation......Page 523 11.2 UV Radiation......Page 527 11.3 Temperature......Page 532 11.4 Liquids and Vapors......Page 534 11.5 Stabilization......Page 538 11.6 Degradable Materials......Page 539 12.1 Definitions......Page 543 12.3 Ignition and Flame Spread Rate......Page 545 12.5 Decomposition and Combustion......Page 549 12.6 Emission of Gaseous Components and Heavy Metals......Page 552 12.9 Recycling......Page 553 13.1 Adhesion Promoters......Page 561 13.3 Blowing Agents......Page 563 13.4 Catalysts......Page 565 13.5 Compatibilizers......Page 566 13.6 Coupling Agents......Page 567 13.7 Dispersing Agents and Surface Active Agents......Page 569 13.8 Flame Retardants......Page 571 13.9 Impact Modifiers......Page 573 13.10 UV Stabilizers......Page 574 13.11 Other Additives......Page 576 14.1.1 Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 581 14.1.3 Bound Rubber......Page 582 14.1.4 Char Formation......Page 583 14.1.5 Cone Calorimetry......Page 584 14.1.6 Contact Angle......Page 585 14.1.7 Dispersing Agent Requirement......Page 587 14.1.8 Dispersion Test......Page 588 14.1.9 Dripping Test......Page 589 14.1.11 Electric Constants Determination......Page 590 14.1.12 Electron Microscopy......Page 593 14.1.14 Flame Propagation Test......Page 594 14.1.16 Image Analysis......Page 596 14.1.17 Limiting Oxygen Index......Page 599 14.1.18 Magnetic Properties......Page 600 14.1.19 Optical Microscopy......Page 601 14.1.22 Rate of Combustion......Page 602 14.1.24 Smoke Chamber......Page 603 14.1.25 Sonic Methods......Page 604 14.1.26 Specific Surface Area......Page 606 14.1.27 Thermal Analysis......Page 607 14.2.1 Electron Spin Resonance......Page 608 14.2.2 Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis......Page 609 14.2.3 Inverse Gas Chromatography......Page 610 14.2.5 Gel Content......Page 614 14.2.6 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy......Page 615 14.2.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 616 14.2.8 UV and Visible Spectrophotometry......Page 619 14.2.10 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy......Page 620 15.0 Fillers in Commercial Polymers......Page 627 15.1 Acrylics......Page 628 15.2 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymer (ABS)......Page 630 15.3 Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate (ASA)......Page 632 15.4 Aliphatic Polyketone......Page 633 15.5 Alkyd Resins......Page 634 15.6 Elastomers, TPO......Page 635 15.7 Epoxy Resins......Page 636 15.8 Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Copolymer, EVA......Page 641 15.9 Ethylene-Ethyl Acetate Copolymer, EEA......Page 642 15.10 Ethylene-Propylene Copolymers, EPR & EPDM......Page 643 15.11 Ionomers......Page 644 15.12 Liquid Crystalline Polymers, LCP......Page 645 15.13 Perfluoroalkoxy Resin, PFA......Page 646 15.14 Phenolic Resins......Page 647 15.15 Poly(Acrylic Acid), PAA......Page 650 15.16 Polyamides, PA......Page 651 15.17 Polyamideimide, PAI......Page 655 15.18 Polyamines......Page 656 15.19 Polyaniline, PANI......Page 657 15.20 Polyaryletherketone, PAEK......Page 658 15.21 Poly(Butylene Terephthalate), PBT......Page 660 15.22 Polycarbonate, PC......Page 661 15.23 Polyetheretherketone, PEEK......Page 664 15.24 Polyetherimide, PEI......Page 666 15.25 Polyether Sulfone, PES......Page 667 15.26 Polyethylene, PE......Page 668 15.27 Polyethylene, Chlorinated, CPE......Page 673 15.28 Polyehylene, Chlorosulfonated, CSM......Page 674 15.29 Poly(Ethylene Oxide), PEO & PEG......Page 675 15.30 Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate), PET......Page 677 15.31 Polyimide, PI......Page 678 15.32 Polymethylmethacrylate, PMMA......Page 680 15.33 Polyoxymethylene, POM......Page 682 15.34 Poly(Phenyline Ether), PPO......Page 683 15.35 Poly(Phenyline Sulfide), PPS......Page 684 15.36 Polypropylene, PP......Page 685 15.37 Polypyrrole......Page 690 15.38 Polystyrene & High Impact, PS & HIPS......Page 691 15.39 Polysulfides......Page 694 15.40 Polysulfone, PSO......Page 695 15.41 Polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE......Page 696 15.42 Polyurethanes, PU & TPU......Page 698 15.43 Poly(Vinyl Acetate), PVAc......Page 701 15.44 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol), PVA......Page 702 15.45 Poly(Vinyl Butyral), PVB......Page 703 15.46 Poly(Vinyl Chloride), PVC......Page 704 15.47 Rubbers......Page 706 15.47.1 Natural Rubber, NR......Page 707 15.47.2 Nitrile Rubber, NBR......Page 709 15.47.3 Polybutadiene Rubber, BR......Page 712 15.47.4 Polybutyl Rubber, HR......Page 713 15.47.5 Polychloroprene, CR......Page 714 15.47.6 Polyisobutylene, PIB......Page 716 15.47.7 Polyisoprene, IR......Page 717 15.47.8 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber, SBR......Page 718 15.48 Silicones, SI......Page 720 15.49 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymer, SAN......Page 722 15.50 Tetrafluoroethylene-Perfluoropropylene, FEP......Page 723 15.51 Unsaturated Polyesters......Page 724 15.52 VINYLIDENE-FLUORIDE TERPOLYMERS, PVDF......Page 726 16.1 Blends, Alloys and Interpenetrating Networks......Page 739 16.2 Composites......Page 748 16.3 Nanocomposites......Page 752 16.4 Laminates......Page 758 17.0 Formulation with Fillers......Page 763 18.1 Blow Molding......Page 771 18.2 Calendering and Hot-Melt Coating......Page 773 18.3 Compression Molding......Page 774 18.4 Dip Coating......Page 776 18.5 Dispersion......Page 777 18.6 Extrusion......Page 779 18.7 Foaming......Page 782 18.8 Injection Molding......Page 783 18.9 Knife Coating......Page 785 18.10 Mixing......Page 786 18.12 Reaction Injection Molding......Page 791 18.13 Rotational Molding......Page 793 18.14 Sheet Molding......Page 794 18.16 Welding and Machining......Page 795 19.1 Adhesives......Page 801 19.3 Aerospace......Page 804 19.4 Appliances......Page 805 19.5 Automotive Materials......Page 806 19.6 Bottles and Containers......Page 807 19.8 Business Machines......Page 808 19.9 Cables and Wires......Page 809 19.11 Coatings and Paints......Page 810 19.12 Cosmetics and Pharmaceutical Products......Page 815 19.13 Dental Restorative Composites......Page 817 19.14 Electrical and Electronic Materials......Page 818 19.15 Electronic Interference Shielding......Page 819 19.17 Film......Page 821 19.19 Food and Feed......Page 824 19.22 Hoses and Pipes......Page 825 19.24 Medical Applications......Page 826 19.27 Optical Devices......Page 829 19.28 Paper......Page 831 19.29 Radiation Shields......Page 834 19.30 Rail Transportation......Page 835 19.32 Telecommunication......Page 836 19.33 Tires......Page 837 19.34 Sealants......Page 839 19.35 Siding......Page 840 19.37 Waterproofing......Page 841 19.38 WINDOWS......Page 842 20.0 Hazards in Filler Use......Page 847 Index of Abbreviations......Page 855 Directory of Filler Manufacturers and Distributors......Page 859 Directory of Equipment Manufacturers......Page 899 Index......Page 902 A reference of solids capable of changing the physical and chemical properties of materials. Stimulated by the fact that materials can be improved almost beyond recognition by new grades of fillers, it presents the information needed to market, develop, select, manufacture, and apply these versatile materials.