Handbook of Essential Keywords for Understanding Rural China

Based on sociolinguistic analysis methods, theoretical analysis or empirical research was conducted on 39 keywords related to rural reform, peasant behaviour and peasant politics in China since the founding of the People's Republic of China. The research content covers the period from 1949 to the first decade of the twenty-first century. The research content includes changes in the rural policies of the People's Republic of China, changes in rural systems, organisations and behaviour in the era of collectivisation, and peasants' reactions and behaviour in the face of national policies.This book focuses on four aspects: the meaning of words themselves in Chinese, their meaning in contemporary Chinese political life, how peasants understand and practice the elements and connotations contained in words, and how words themselves change, transform or even disappear.This book will appeal to scholars of peasant politics, Chinese affairs, and contemporary Chinese history; undergraduate and postgraduate students of history, sociology, and political science; and the general reader interested in Chinese rural areas and Chinese politics. Chinese political societies in English-speaking countries, Chinese or East Asian research centres, universities or libraries may also be interested in this book. Preface Contents About the Editor Contributors 1 Introduction: Keywords of Rural China 1 Stages of China Contemporary Rural Development 2 Sorting Out Policy Discourse and Keywords 3 Research Perspectives and Main Contents 2 Work Team: Special Organization in Contemporary Rural China 1 Origin and History 2 Formation, Scale, and Selection of Personnel 2.1 Formation of Work Teams 2.2 Scale of Work Teams 2.3 Selection of Personnel 2.3.1 The Selection of the Work Team Leader 2.3.2 The Selection of General Team Members 3 Work Content and Object 3.1 Work Content 3.2 Work Object 4 Specificity and Historical Role 4.1 Specificity of the Work Organization 4.2 Specificity of the Work Method 4.3 Historical Role of the Work Team 3 Class Identity: Construction of Farmer Status and Reconstruction of Rural Order 1 Why Determine and Classify? 2 How to Classify? 3 What Are the Identities? 3.1 Poor and Lower-Middle-Class Farmers 3.2 Middle-Class Farmers 3.3 Four Types of Hostile Elements 4 Historical Mission and Comments 4 FANSHEN (Turning-Over): Reshaping of Rural Order in Land Reform 1 Prelude 2 How Should Individuals FANSHEN? 2.1 Economic FANSHEN: Distribution of Fruits 2.2 Ideological FANSHEN: Complaining Hardships and Accounting 2.2.1 Complaining Hardships: Moving with Emotion 2.2.2 Accounting: Enlightening with Reason 3 Excessive ``FANSHEN ́ ́ 3.1 Frenzied Attack 3.1.1 ``Cutting Off the Feudal Tail ́ ́ and ``Beating the Drowning Dog ́ ́ 3.1.2 Irrational Struggle Behavior of Farmers 3.2 Excessive Political Mobilization 4 The ``Post-FANSHEN ́ ́ Era 5 Conclusion 5 Administrative Village: Nationalization Governance of Rural Society 1 ``Village ́ ́ and the Village System 2 The Administrative Nature of Village Governance 2.1 Local Autonomy in the Late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China Period 2.2 Rural Organization Construction Under the Leadership of the Communist Party of China 2.2.1 Farmer Associations 2.2.2 Village Soviets 2.2.3 Village Offices 2.2.4 Administrative Villages 2.3 Administrative Village: The Preliminary Nationalization of Rural Governance 3 Changes in the Administrative Village 3.1 Changes in Governance Entities 3.1.1 Production Brigade Period 3.1.2 The Villagers ́ Committee Period 3.2 Changes in Governance Functions 4 Three Perspectives 4.1 Revolutionary Perspective 4.2 Perspective of Modern-State Construction 4.3 Democratic Perspective 6 Mutual Aid Groups: From Civilian Behavior to Governmental Organization 1 How Does Mutual Aid Become a ``Group ́ ́? 1.1 Motivation 1.1.1 Traditional Labor Exchange Groups: ``Labor Exchange Came First ́ ́ 1.1.2 Forming a Group Due to Poverty: ``All Are Old, Weak, Sick, Disabled, and Young ́ ́ 1.1.3 Mobilization to Form a Group: ``The Policy Is Here, Who Dares Not to Listen ́ ́ 1.2 Standards and Scale 1.2.1 Geographical Proximity: ``Living Close, Good to Call for Work ́ ́ 1.2.2 By Kinship: ``Each Good Person Has Their Own Group ́ ́ 1.2.3 Administrative Order: ``One Wan (Group), Cut from the Middle ́ ́ 1.3 Individual Farmers Outside the Mutual Aid Group 1.3.1 Middle-Class Farmers Who Do Not Need Mutual Aid 1.3.2 The ``Cowboy ́ ́ Who Was Excluded from the Mutual Aid Group 1.3.3 Landlords Who Are Not Allowed to Participate in Mutual Aid Group 2 How Can We Help Each Other? 2.1 Labor Arrangement 2.1.1 Work Arrangement: ``Self-Appointment ́ ́ and ``Group Leader Assignment ́ ́ 2.1.2 Going to Work: ``The Team Leader Waits on the Hillside as Soon as It Starts to Dawn ́ ́ 2.1.3 Working: ``You Chase the Setting Sun; I Chase the Dawn ́ ́ 2.1.4 Finishing Work: ``Working Together But Eating at Home ́ ́ 2.2 Rules for the Exchange of Labor and Tools 2.2.1 Distinction of Labor Quality: ``Human Labor and Cattle Labor Are the Same ́ ́ 2.2.2 Labor Statistics: ``Group Leader and Group Members Keep Separate Accounts ́ ́ 2.2.3 Balance of Labor Mutual Aid: ``Pay Back the Owed Labor with Money or Grain ́ ́ 2.3 Maintenance of Mutual Aid Order 2.3.1 Self-Consciousness: The ``Heart of Mutual Aid ́ ́ that Respects Each Other 2.3.2 Acquaintance Supervision: Regular Meetings to ``Discuss Openly ́ ́ Conflicting Opinions 2.3.3 Organizational Punishment 3 Transformation of Mutual Aid Groups 3.1 Transition to the Cooperative 3.2 Attitude of the Farmers 3.2.1 Supporters: ``The More Organized, the More Developed ́ ́ 3.2.2 Helplessness: ``If You Do Not Participate, You Will Not Be Given Land to Cultivate ́ ́ 3.2.3 Confusion: ``Who Knows Which Is Better? Anyway, It ́s All the Policies from Above ́ ́ 4 Historical Achievements 7 Production Cooperatives: Organization of Farmers ́ Collectivization 1 Prelude 2 The ``Cooperatives ́ ́ Came to the Village 2.1 Control Production and Complete Planned Procurement 2.2 The Enthusiasm of Poor Farmers and the Hesitation of Middle-Class Farmers 2.3 The Group Leader Becomes the Head of the Cooperative 3 The Primary Cooperative 3.1 One Head of the Cooperative Walks in Front; Four Team Leaders Follow 3.2 After the Land Was Handed Over to the Cooperative, Both Men and Women Had to Work with the Team Leader 3.3 Why Did Those Who Did Less Work Not Get Fewer Work Points, and Why Did Those with More Land Get More Grain? 4 The Advanced Cooperative 4.1 Strangers Came to the Cooperative 4.2 After Handing Over Cows and Sheep, Only Pots and Beds Were Left at Home 4.3 Work at the Sound of the Bell, No Matter How Much Or How Little You Do 5 Quietly Reform 6 Conclusion 6.1 A Model of a Production Cooperative 6.2 An Unfinished Story 8 Supply and Marketing Cooperatives: Nationalization of Agricultural and Industrial Product Transactions 1 How Was It Formed? 2 Organization, Composition, and Functions 2.1 Organizational Structure 2.2 Internal Relations 2.3 Two Major Functions 3 How to ``Supply ́ ́ and ``Sell ́ ́? 3.1 How to ``Supply ́ ́? 3.1.1 Means of Production 3.1.2 Living Materials 3.2 How to ``Sell ́ ́? 3.2.1 Replace ``Assisting in Sales ́ ́ with ``Ordering ́ ́ 3.2.2 The Scope of Ordering Continued to Expand 3.3 The Balance Between ``Supply ́ ́ and ``Sale ́ ́ 3.3.1 Living Materials: Preferential Prices 3.3.2 Agricultural and Sideline Products: Negotiated Purchase and Sale 3.3.3 Cash Crops: Autonomous Pricing Replaces Planned Prices 4 How to Cooperate? 4.1 Cooperation Foundation: Production Materials 4.2 Cooperation Method: Contract 4.3 Cooperation Content: Production Plan and Business Plan 4.4 Cooperation and Interaction 4.4.1 Quantity Determined by Population 4.4.2 Supply Range 5 Dissolution and Conclusion 5.1 Top-Down Reform 5.1.1 Adjusting the Varieties and Quantities of Unified Purchases and Procurement and Expand Negotiated Purchases 5.1.2 Allowing Private Operations to Intervene, Expanding Purchasing and Selling Channels 5.2 The Dissolution of Grassroots Supply and Marketing Cooperatives 9 Production Brigade: Rural Grassroots Organization Under the People ́s Commune 1 What Is a Production Brigade? 2 Origin 3 Composition 3.1 ``Mainstream ́ ́: Brigade Cadres 3.2 ``Branch ́ ́: Production Team 3.3 ``Leaves ́ ́: Members 4 Roles and Responsibilities 4.1 Rural ``Managers ́ ́ 4.1.1 Agricultural Production: Planning and Guidance 4.1.2 Farmland Water Conservancy Construction: Organizing Members to Work 4.1.3 Income Distribution: Planning, Summarizing, and Registration 4.2 The ``Supervisor ́ ́ of the Procurement Task 4.2.1 Task Assignment: The Brigade Conveys, the Production Team Arranges 4.2.2 Grain Handover: The Brigade Urges, the Members Hand Over Themselves 4.3 Constraints and Guidance Under Political Movements 4.3.1 The Arrival of the Work Team 4.3.2 Management of Members 4.3.3 Advocate Verbal Struggle, not Physical Struggle 5 Conclusion and Impact 10 Commune-Run Enterprises: Extension of National Development Logic in Rural Areas 1 ``Craze ́ ́ of Commune Industrialization 2 ``Decline ́ ́ 3 ``Revival ́ ́ 4 Rising Again 5 Conclusion 11 Militia: Study on the Integration of ``People ́ ́ and ``Soldiers ́ ́ 1 Establishing Large Militia Divisions 2 Organizational Structure 2.1 The Leadership Team 2.2 Organizational Method 2.3 Militia Equipment 2.4 Militia Reorganization 3 Incorporating Soldiers into the Civilian Population 3.1 Militia Training 3.1.1 Military Guidance 3.1.2 Training Methods 3.1.3 Military Training 3.2 Militia Education 3.2.1 Political Education 3.2.2 Health Education 3.2.3 Frostbite Prevention Education 3.2.4 Class Struggle 4 Civilians in the Army 4.1 Public Security Work 4.2 Dam Repair and Emergency Response 4.2.1 Dam Repair on the Beiliao River 4.2.2 Emergency Rescue at Liujiaguanzi Town 4.3 Mediation of Conflicts 5 ``Merits ́ ́ and ``Demerits ́ ́ 12 The Poor and Lower-Middle Peasants ́ Association: Policy Orientation and Local Practice 1 Emergence and Establishment 2 Development Toward Farmers ́ Association 3 The Establishment and Abolition of Farmers ́ Association 4 Historical Perspective: Past and Present 13 Cable Broadcasting: An Analysis from the Perspective of Political Communication 1 Why Build Cable Broadcasting? 2 Construction Process 2.1 Development Start-Up Period: 1950-1956 2.2 Rapid Growth Period: 1956-1966 2.3 Development and Popularization Period: 1969-1982 2.4 Continuous Decline Period: 1983-2000 3 Management System 3.1 Financial Management System 3.2 Administrative Management System 4 Broadcasting Content 4.1 Political Broadcasting 4.2 Educational Broadcasting 4.3 Artistic Broadcasting 4.4 Service Broadcasting 5 Functions and Roles 5.1 Propaganda Reporting 5.2 Organizational Mobilization 5.3 Ideological Education 6 Subsequent History 14 Unified Purchase and Sale: Nationalization of Agricultural Product Resource 1 Semantic Analysis 2 Formation 3 Operation and Development 3.1 Nationalization of Production: Fixed Production 3.1.1 Determining the Basis for Unified Procurement: Field Inspection and Fixed Production 3.1.2 Ensuring the Quantity of Unified Procurement: Production Planning 3.1.3 Reducing the Burden of Unified Purchases and Sales: ``Nonagricultural ́ ́ 3.2 Nationalization of Exchange: Fixed Exchange 3.2.1 Exchange Venues: Opening and Closing at Different Times 3.2.2 Trading Objects: Tight and Loose 3.2.3 Regional Surplus and Deficit: National Allocation 3.3 Nationalization of Distribution: Fixed Purchase 3.3.1 Procurement Object: Subject and Object 3.3.2 Requisition Standard: Establishment and Adjustment Quantity Standard Price Standards 3.3.3 Procurement Methods: Alternation and Conversion 3.4 Nationalization of Consumption: Fixed Sales and Fixed Consumption 3.4.1 Fixed Sales Range 3.4.2 Standardization of Consumption Quotas 3.4.3 The Transformation of Consumption Methods: The Voucher System 4 Public Behavior 4.1 Negativity and Individualism 4.2 Gray Means (Refers to Informal and Not Recognized by the Public Abnormal Means or Methods, Usually Wandering in the Fringe... 4.3 Evading Tasks 4.4 The Unstoppable Black Market 5 Conclusion 5.1 Breakthrough in Productivity 5.2 Adjustment and Loosening 5.3 Handshake with the Market 15 Production Plan: A Political Analysis of Constituent Elements 1 Organizational Elements 1.1 Organizational Power: Society-State 1.2 Organizational Unit: Family-Collective 1.3 Organizational Form: Informal-Formal 1.4 Organizational System 1.4.1 Production Responsibility System: Work Evaluation and Point Allocation 1.4.2 Labor Management System: Basic Labor Day System 2 Operational Elements 2.1 Establishment of Plan Indicators 2.2 Content of the Production Plan 2.2.1 Planning of Labor Distribution 2.2.2 Planned Distribution of Animal Power 2.2.3 Planned Allocation of Manure 3 Behavioral Elements 3.1 Collective Behavior: Promoting Revolution and Production 3.2 Individual Behavior: A Game of Action and Inaction 3.3 Private Distribution: Distribution Outside the System of Labor Results 4 Execution 4.1 Planned and Unplanned Production 4.2 Revision of the Production Plan 5 Postplanning Era 5.1 End of Planning: The Withdrawal of National Power 5.2 Development of Production: The Return of Social Forces 16 Production Team Leader: Expanded Analysis on Role Theory 1 Team Leader and Members: ``Father ́ ́ and ``Son ́ ́ 1.1 The Four-Part Production 1.1.1 The Work Horn Sounds 1.1.2 Starting the Field Work 1.1.3 Work Ended with Shouts 1.1.4 Issuing Work Assignments 1.2 Three Ideas for Dividing Households 1.2.1 Managing Household Life, i.e., ``Think about next year at present, think about the year after next year at the next year... 1.2.2 Keeping Balance of Water in the Bowl 1.2.3 There Was Also ``Favoritism ́ ́ 1.3 Records of Daily Trivia 1.4 Rebellion of the Team Members 1.4.1 Lazy and Slack Off 1.4.2 Petty Theft 1.4.3 Struggling with the Team Leader 2 Team Leader and Brigade Cadres: ``Son ́ ́ and ``Father ́ ́ 2.1 Planting: Arrangement and Execution 2.1.1 What to Plant? 2.1.2 How to Plant? Deep Plowing of the Land Dense Planting 2.2 Learning from Dazhai: Call and Response 2.3 Agricultural Products: Requisition and Sale 2.3.1 Overstrong Requisition and Forced Sale 2.3.2 Request and Reduction 2.4 The Detour of the Production Team Leader 2.4.1 Concealing Production and Private Distribution 2.4.2 ``Playing Tricks ́ ́ 3 Conclusion: The Expanded ``Patriarchal System ́ ́ 17 Work Points: Rural Order Construction and Farmer Action 1 Work Point System 2 Competing for Work and Points 3 Arranging Work and Assigning Tasks 4 Conclusion 18 Going to Work: Farmers ́ ``Collective Labor ́ ́ 1 Why? 1.1 Rural ``Collectivization ́ ́ 1.2 Nationalization of Farmers ́ ``Labor ́ ́ 2 ``Going to Work ́ ́ Norms 2.1 Labor Objects 2.2 Unified Arrangement of the Labor Force 2.3 Collective Management of the Work Process 2.4 Centralized Management of Work Time 3 How About ``Going to Work ́ ́? 4 Farmer Behavior 5 Historical Analysis 19 Lazy and Slack-off: Farmers ́ Survival Wisdom When the State Was Offstage 1 Why Be Lazy? 1.1 ``Thirty M of Land and a Cow, a Wife and Children on a Warm Kàng ́ ́ 1.2 ``Commune Members Are Public People; They Must Listen to the Public Voice ́ ́ 1.3 ``The Strength Is One ́s Own; How Much Effort to Exert, One Decides ́ ́ 1.4 ``Out of Eighty Picks, Only One Is Yours ́ ́ 1.5 ``Why Can I Not Slack Off If Others Can? ́ ́ 2 How to Slack Off? 2.1 ``Going to Work Like Carrying a Load, Leaving Work Like Shooting an Arrow ́ ́ 2.2 ``Working in the Collective Field Is Like an Old Ox Pulling a Broken Cart, Working in the Self-retained Plot Is Like Wu So... 2.3 ``Worked All Day, Didn ́t Sweat at All ́ ́ 3 Why Is It Possible for Members to Be Lazy? 3.1 The Complexity of Agricultural Production Made It Difficult to Allocate Labor Finely and Inspect the Quality of Labor 3.2 The Cost of Implementing Effective Supervision in Collective Agricultural Labor Was Too High 4 How Can We Deal with Laziness? 4.1 ``Eating a Full Meal Is the Real Deal ́ ́ 4.2 ``If Oneself Is Not Upright, How Can One Correct Others? ́ ́ 4.3 Participate in Labor with the Members 4.4 One Word: ``Contracting ́ ́ 4.5 Turning a Blind Eye 5 Three Possible Theoretical Explanations 5.1 Free Rider Theory 5.2 From the Perspective of Game Theory 5.3 The Imperfection of Modern-State Construction in Rural Areas 20 Concealing Production and Private Distribution 1 Nationalization of Agricultural Products 2 ``Concealing Production and Private Distribution ́ ́: Resistance of the Powerless 21 Retained Land: Relationship Between the State and Farmers from the Perspective of Distribution 1 Historical Origin 1.1 Origin of the Policy 1.2 Reasons for Distributing ``Retained Land ́ ́ 1.3 The Essence of the ``Retained Land ́ ́ Distribution 2 Changes 3 Comparison Between ``Retained Land ́ ́ and ``Collective Land ́ ́ 3.1 Institutional Comparison 3.1.1 Property Rights 3.1.2 Production System 3.1.3 Distribution System 3.2 Comparison of Production Forms 3.2.1 ``Shirking (mó yng gong) ́ ́ and Low Efficiency 3.2.2 Retained Lands and Enthusiasm 3.3 Comparison of Distribution Benefits 4 From ``Retained Land ́ ́ to ``Household Contract System ́ ́ 4.1 The Development Path of Retained Land: State Promotion Fought for by Farmers 4.2 Innovation of the Distribution System from ``Retained Land ́ ́ to a ``Household Contract Responsibility System ́ ́ 5 Disappearance and Transformation 5.1 The Historical Function of ``Retained Land ́ ́ Disappears 5.2 The Social Function Transformation of Retained Land 22 All-around Contracting: Analysis on the Logic of Production Organization Change 1 ``Contracting Labor ́ ́: The Practice of the ``Team ́ ́ 1.1 Origin 1.2 Practice 1.2.1 Setting the Yield Production 1.2.2 Setting the Labor Force 1.2.3 Setting the Work Point 1.3 Performance and Issues 2 ``Contracted Production ́ ́: The Practice of the ``Group ́ ́ 2.1 Production Units to Groups 2.2 Arranging Production Within the Group 2.3 Members Itching to Try 3 All-around Contracting: The Practice of ``Households ́ ́ 3.1 Origin 3.2 Practice 3.2.1 Entering the Village 3.2.2 Household Registration 3.2.3 Expansion to Rural Side Businesses 4 Conclusion: Evolution of Production Organization under Economic Logic 23 Socialist-Edu Movement: Political Discourse Between State and Farmers 1 ``Socialist-Edu ́ ́: The State Constructs the Discourse of Farmers 2 ``Four Clean-Ups ́ ́: Farmers Constructing the National Discourse 3 The ``Four Clean-Ups ́ ́ Enter Socialist Education 4 ``Four Clean-Ups ́ ́ Became the National Discourse 24 ``Four Clean-Ups ́ ́ Campaign: Six Kinds of Farmers ́ Behavior 1 Strategy of Downward Cadres 1.1 Establishment of the Leadership Core 1.2 Two Major Difficulties in Work 1.3 Secretly ``Rooting and Connecting ́ ́ 2 The Death of the First Team Leader 2.1 The Birth of ``Black Material ́ ́ 2.2 The First ``Major Battle ́ ́ as a Typical Case 2.3 ``External Light ́ ́ Treatment 2.4 The Death of Yan Becomes a Memory 2.5 Investigation of Related Personnel 2.5.1 Investigation of Ju Chunrong 2.5.2 Investigation of Jin He 3 The Struggle Against Activists 3.1 Formation of a Professional Struggle Team 3.2 Organizational Guarantee: Poor and Low-middle Class Farmers Association and Militia 3.3 Rebound Behavior Under Strong Pressure 4 Misery of the Four Types of Hostile Elements 5 Embarrassment of the Primary School Director 5.1 Overview and Problems 5.2 The First Meeting: Obtaining the Diagnosis and the Storm of Overturning the Case 5.3 The Second Meeting: Retreating for Advancement, Diverting Attention 6 Helplessness of Ordinary Farmers 6.1 Incomprehensible Documents and Policies 6.2 Inevitable Reduction in Production 6.3 The ``Absent-Minded ́ ́ Struggle 7 Conclusion: Political Movements and Farmer Behavior 25 Dazhai Work Point: Labor Management During the People ́s Commune Period 1 Origin and Formation 1.1 ``Fixed Points, Flexible Evaluation ́ ́: Based on the Labor Force Assessment 1.2 ``Quota Management, Piece-Rate Work ́ ́: Standard Quantification 1.3 ``Payment by Item ́ ́: Refined Management 2 Operation and Conditions 2.1 The Operation of ``Dazhai Work Point ́ ́ 2.1.1 ``Model Worker Points, Self-Reporting and Public Discussion ́ ́: Centralized Management Shifts to Self-Supervision 2.1.2 The ``Model Worker ́ ́ Becomes ``Standard Farmwork ́ ́: The Transformation from the Labor Force to Labor Quantity 2.1.3 ``Standard Work Point ́ ́ Was Used to Replace ``Standard Farmwork Point ́ ́ for Further Simplification 2.2 Conditions for Dazhai Work Point Operation 2.2.1 Flexible Organization 2.2.2 Member Consensus 2.2.3 Suitable for Rural Areas 3 Promotion, Alienation, and Termination 3.1 Promotion of Dazhai Work Point 3.1.1 The System Is Not Cumbersome; It Is Simple and Easy to Implement 3.1.2 Respect for Individual Differences, Centralized and Unified 3.1.3 Officials Participating in Labor: Consolidating the Mass Foundation 3.1.4 Adhere to Ideological Leadership: Consistent with the National Direction 3.2 The Mutation of Dazhai Work Point 3.2.1 Shift from Evaluating Work to Evaluating People 3.2.2 Shift from Ideological Leadership to Politics in Command 3.3 The End of the Dazhai Work Point 4 Conclusion 26 Cooperative Medical Care: Rural Medical Practice Under a Collective Economy 1 Establishment 1.1 The Needs of National Development 1.2 The Actual Needs of Farmers 1.3 The Need for Rural Work 2 Implementation 2.1 Fundraising and Management 2.1.1 Fundraising 2.1.2 Fund Management 2.2 Development of the Barefoot Doctor Group 2.2.1 The Formation of Barefoot Doctors 2.2.2 Training and Learning 2.2.3 Work Content 2.3 ``Three Local, Four Self-reliant ́ ́ Movement 2.4 Guarantee Mechanism 2.4.1 ``Passing Up Level by Level ́ ́ 2.4.2 ``Can Cover Minor Illnesses But Not Major Ones ́ ́ 2.4.3 ``Only Charge for Treatment, Not for Medicine ́ ́ 3 Disintegration 3.1 State Withdraws, the Collective Weakens 3.2 The Emergence of Rural Medical Marketization 3.2.1 From Barefoot Doctors to Rural Doctors 3.2.2 Loss of Medical Personnel 3.2.3 Changes in Health Rooms at All Levels 3.3 Internal Management of Cooperative Medical Care Was Chaotic 3.3.1 Accumulation of Internal Financial Problems 3.3.2 Misunderstanding of Members ́ Psychological Cognition 3.3.3 Decreasing Enthusiasm for Cadre Mobilization 4 Conclusion and Reflection 4.1 Leading Factors 4.2 Historical Considerations 27 Labor Model: Wang Guofan and ``Poor Stick Cooperative ́ ́ 1 ``Farmer ́ ́ Wang Guofan 2 ``Leading Goose ́ ́ Wang Guofan 3 ``Poor Stick Head ́ ́ 3.1 ``Poor Stick Cooperative ́ ́ 3.2 ``The Image of Our Entire Country ́ ́ 3.3 The First Agricultural Labor Model 3.4 The Formation Mechanism of Labor Model 4 Diverse Opinions 4.1 National Reshaping 4.2 In the Eyes of the People 5 A Summary, Not a Conclusion 28 Mínbàn Teachers: Nonstate Personnel in Rural Education 1 Identity Formation 1.1 To Go or Not to Go? 1.2 Acquisition of Teaching Qualifications 1.3 What Could Be Obtained? 1.3.1 ``Grain ́ ́ Instead of a Salary 1.3.2 ``Subsidy Plus Work Points ́ ́ 2 Difficult Continuation 2.1 Political Movement ``Weather Vane ́ ́ 2.2 ``Work Points Plus Subsidies ́ ́ 2.3 The Helplessness of ``Change When Said ́ ́ 3 Governance and Rectification 3.1 One ``Rectification ́ ́ Sets the Situation 3.1.1 Regularization 3.1.2 Recruitment and Examination 3.1.3 ``Dismissal ́ ́ 3.2 Title Reform 3.2.1 Background 3.2.2 Process 4 Problem-Solving 4.1 ``Drive with One Whip ́ ́ 4.1.1 Conditions for ``Driving ́ ́ 4.1.2 How to ``Drive ́ ́? 4.2 ``Glorious ́ ́ Transformation 4.2.1 From ``Mud Bowl ́ ́ to ``Iron Bowl ́ ́ 4.2.2 National Recognition of Identity 5 Conclusion 29 Barefoot Doctors: Historical and Institutional Perspectives 1 Origin 1.1 Situation of a Lack of Doctors and Medicine 1.2 Different Medical Systems in Urban and Rural Areas 1.3 The Power of a Great Man 1.4 Village Culture 2 Policy Changes 2.1 Evolution of National ``Barefoot Doctor ́ ́ Policy 2.1.1 ``Rural Resources Reorganization and Self-Rescue ́ ́ 2.1.2 ``Urban Resources to Aid Countryside ́ ́ 2.1.3 Emergence of Cooperative Medical System 2.1.4 The Rise of ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ 2.1.5 End of ``Barefoot Doctor ́ ́ Phenomenon 2.2 Changes in Policy Implementation 2.2.1 The Reorganization and Self-help of Rural Resources 2.2.2 Support and Assistance from Urban Resources 2.2.3 ``Cooperative Medical Care ́ ́ and ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ Flourish Everywhere 2.2.4 The End of ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ 3 Selection and Management 3.1 Selection Criteria 3.1.1 Professional Skills 3.1.2 Class Identity 3.1.3 Cultural Foundation 3.1.4 Regional Requirements 3.1.5 Age and Gender Requirements 3.2 Training Management Mode 3.2.1 ``Short, Flat, Fast ́ ́ Training Mode 3.2.2 ``Precise, Detailed, Accurate ́ ́ Training Mode 3.2.3 ``Multiple, Active, Fast ́ ́ Training Model 3.3 Selection and Training of Case Studies 3.3.1 Emergence of ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ 3.3.2 Selection of ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ 3.3.3 Training and Management of ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ 4 From ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ to ``Rural Doctors ́ ́ 4.1 Development Path 4.1.1 ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́-A Suboptimal Choice 4.1.2 ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́-The Political Result of Multiple Causes 4.2 From ``Barefoot Doctors ́ ́ to ``Rural Doctors ́ ́ 4.2.1 Innovation of the Examination System 4.2.2 Transformation of the Economic System 4.2.3 Innovation of Cooperative Medical System 30 Household Contract System: Three Perspectives Analysis 1 From the Perspective of Property Rights 2 From an Organizational Perspective 2.1 Actual Effective Production Unit 2.2 The Smallest and Most Effective Production Unit 2.3 Freedom of Production and Development 3 From the Perspective of the System 3.1 Substantive Rights 3.2 Natural Rights 4 Conclusion 31 Responsible Farmland: Historic Changes and Analysis 1 Emergence of ``Responsible Farmland ́ ́ 2 Development of ``Responsible Farmland ́ ́ 3 Continuation of ``Responsible Farmland ́ ́ 4 Where Does ``Responsibility ́ ́ Come From? 4.1 ``Food Field ́ ́ of the People 4.2 Farmers ́ ``Life-Saving Fields ́ ́ 4.3 ``Responsible Farmland ́ ́ of Industrialization 5 Where Does ``Responsibility ́ ́ Go? 32 Ten-Thousand-Yun Households: Economic Changes and Policy Choices 1 ``Let Some People Get Rich First ́ ́ 2 Shaking Hands with the Commodity Economy 3 Rise of Private Economy 4 Conclusion and Comments 4.1 Policy Choices, Institutional Arrangements, and Farmers ́ Pursuits 4.2 Leap of Marketization in Contemporary Rural China 4.3 A Historical Name Card Worth Cherishing 33 Geracomium: Elderly-Care Collectively During People ́s Commune Period 1 Establishment 2 Admission Criteria 2.1 Who Could Enter 2.2 Who Could Not Be Admitted 2.3 Who Did Not Get In 3 Operation 3.1 System Arrangement 3.2 Division of Labor Guarantees 4 Elderly Life 4.1 Variety 4.2 Numerous Benefits 4.3 More Care 4.4 Guarantee More 5 Further Discussion 34 Agricultural to Nonagricultural: Logic of Farmer ́s Identity Choice Under National Construction 1 Background and Formation 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Order Reconstruction and Social Control 1.1.2 Planned Economy and Unified Purchase and Sale 1.1.3 Reverse Urbanization Logic and Control 1.2 Initial Formation 2 Operation 2.1 Dual Social Structure 2.2 Identity Differences in Resource Allocation 2.3 Crisis of Farmer ́s Identity Recognition 2.4 The Beginning of the ``Agricultural to Nonagricultural ́ ́ Transition 3 Farmer ́s Choice 3.1 ``Recruitment ́ ́: Labor in Exchange for Commodity Grain 3.2 ``College Entrance Examination ́ ́: Intellectual Change in Household Registration Status 3.3 ``Capacity Expansion ́ ́: Resource Exchange for Urban Qualification 4 From ``Agricultural to Nonagricultural ́ ́ to ``Nonagricultural to Agricultural ́ ́ 35 Three Deductions and Five Charges: Collection and Use of Collective Funds 1 Emergence of ``Three Deductions ́ ́ 2 Formation of the ``Three Deductions ́ ́ 3 ``Three Deductions ́ ́ + ``Five Charges ́ ́ 4 Expansion and Consequences 4.1 Double Collection 4.2 Increasing the Levy 4.3 Violations in Collection 5 Reform and Cancellation 5.1 ``Second Tax ́ ́ Standardization 5.2 ``One Thing, One Discussion ́ ́: Difficult Attempt to Change the ``Fee ́ ́ 5.3 The End of the ``Single Tax ́ ́ 36 Farmer ́s Burden: A Historical Analysis 1 Traditional Type: The Law of Agricultural Finance 1.1 Determination of Rent and Tax 1.2 The Form and Style of ``Rent ́ ́ 1.3 The Cause of ``Rent ́ ́: Land Distribution Relationship 1.4 The Result of ``Rents ́ ́ Was the Clientelism System 2 Traditional Industrial Type: The Invisible Behind 2.1 Acquisition of ``Agricultural Surplus ́ ́ 2.2 Extraction Control Rights of ``Agricultural Surplus ́ ́ 2.3 The Origin of ``Surplus ́ ́: Land Property Rights System 3 ``Policy Type ́ ́: The Logic of Rebound 3.1 The Nature of ``Fees ́ ́: Compared with Tax 3.2 The Evolution of ``Fees ́ ́ 3.3 ``Fees ́ ́ and Farmers ́ Burden 3.4 ``Fee Policy Orientation ́ ́ 4 History and Reflection 4.1 From ``Imperial Grain and National Tax ́ ́ to ``Farmer ́s Burden ́ ́ 4.2 Mirror Image of ``Farmers ́ Burden ́ ́: The Figures of the State and Farmers 5 Subsequent Discussions 37 Abandoned Farmland: Farmer ́s Choice and Changes 1 ``No Ability to Cultivate ́ ́: Forced to Abandon 2 ``Unable to Plant ́ ́: Only to Abandon 2.1 Basic Rules of Abandonment of Farmland 2.1.1 Time Pattern 2.1.2 Spatial Pattern 2.2 Scale of Abandonment 2.3 Consequences of Abandonment 3 ``Unwilling to Plant ́ ́: Best to Abandon 3.1 Business Farming Households: Social Status and Economic Benefits 3.2 Part-Time Farming Households: Warmth and Stability 3.3 Farming Households: Market Risk and Cultivating Risk 4 Conclusion and Reflection 4.1 The Historical Context and Development Trend of Land Abandonment 4.2 The Transformation of the Relationship Between the State and Farmers and the Consideration of the Path to Avoid Abandoning... 38 HAIXUAN: China Rural Democracy in Early 1990s 1 Background 2 Course 2.1 The ``HAIXUAN ́ ́ in Beilaohao Village 2.2 The Birth of ``HAIXUAN ́ ́ in Ping ́an Village 3 Institutionalization and Promotion 3.1 ``HAIXUAN ́ ́ Is Recognized 3.2 Expansion to Whole Province 3.3 Fame Spreads Far and Wide 4 Evolution and Expansion 4.1 The Evolution of the Meaning of HAIXUAN 4.2 Expansion of the Application Scope of HAIXUAN 5 Discussion of Three Meanings 5.1 ``Democratic ́ ́ Significance 5.2 ``Political ́ ́ Significance 5.3 ``Era ́ ́ Significance 39 One-Child Policy: Nationalization of Population Reproduction 1 Origin 2 What Is ``Planning? ́ ́ 2.1 Controlling for the Age at First Marriage 2.2 Planned Population Size 3 Propaganda and Organization 3.1 Slogans 3.2 Propaganda Month 3.3 Family Planned Association 4 Implementation of ``Plan ́ ́ 4.1 Ethnic Differences 4.2 Urban-Rural Differences 4.3 Regional Differences 5 Farmers ́ Fertility Behavior 5.1 Planned Birth 5.2 Unplanned Births 5.2.1 Evasion: ``Overbirth Guerrillas ́ ́ 5.3 Paying Money: The Right to Give Birth Becomes a Commodity 5.3.1 Playing Tricks: The ``Strong Weapon ́ ́ of Farmers 6 Consequences of the ``Plan ́ ́ for Birth 6.1 Reduction in Family Size 6.2 High Sex Ratio in Rural Areas 6.3 The Problem of Aging Is Obvious 7 A Difficult Choice? 40 Left-Behind Children: The Nurturing Dilemma Under the Functional Division of Rural Families 1 Appearance 2 Current Situation 2.1 Common Situation 2.2 Distribution Characteristics 2.2.1 Related to Economic Development Status 2.2.2 Children in the Compulsory Education Stage Co