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A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India is the most comprehensive textbook yet for undergraduate and postgraduate students. It introduces students to original sources such as ancient texts, artefacts, inscriptions and coins, illustrating how historians construct history on their basis. Its clear and balanced explanation of concepts and historical debates enables students to independently evaluate evidence, arguments and theories. This remarkable textbook allows the reader to visualize and understand the rich and varied remains of India s ancient past, transforming the process of discovering that past into an exciting experience. Cover Brief Contents Contents Photographs, Maps, and Figures The Author Preface Acknowledgements A Reader’s Guide Introduction: Ideas of the Early Indian Past The Main Physiographic Zones of the Subcontinent Ways of Dividing the Indian Past Changing Interpretations of Early Indian History New Histories, Unwritten Histories Chapter 1: Understanding Literary and Archaeological Sources Reading Ancient Texts from a Historical Point of View Ancient palm leaf manuscripts The Classification of Literary Sources: Language, Genre, and Content The Vedas The Two Sanskrit Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata Archaeology and the Mahabharata The chronological layers in the Ramayana The Puranas The Dharmashastra Theory and practice in the Dharmashastra Buddhist Literature Songs of Buddhist nuns Jaina Literature Sangam Literature and Later Tamil Works The stories of the two Tamil epics Early Kannada and Telugu Literature Other Ancient Texts, Biographies, and Histories Banabhatta and his royal biography The Nature of Ancient Indian Historical Traditions The Accounts of Foreign Writers Al-Biruni on the writing of the Hindus Archaeology and the Early Indian Past Scientific Techniques in Archaeology Radiocarbon dating Interpreting Archaeological Evidence Ethno-Archaeology The social and cultural aspects of technology Protecting Sites Epigraphy: The Study of Inscriptions Ancient and Early Medieval Scripts Languages of Ancient and Early Medieval Inscriptions Deciphered and undeciphered scripts Dating the Inscriptions How to convert ancient era dates into modern ones The Classification of Inscriptions Memorializing death in stone Inscriptions as a Source of History Numismatics: The Study of Coins A Brief History of Indian Coinage Coins as a Source of History Counter-struck coins of the Kshatrapas and Satavahanas Conclusions Chapter 2: Hunter-Gatherers of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages The Geological Ages and Hominid Evolution What does it mean to be human? Hominid Remains in the Indian Subcontinent Palaeo-environments Classifying the Indian Stone Age The Palaeolithic Age Lower Palaeolithic Sites Typical lower palaeolithic tools Isampur: a centre of stone tool manufacture Middle Palaeolithic Sites The Levallois technique Upper Palaeolithic Sites Upper palaeolithic tools Palaeolithic Art and Cults Ostrich eggshell beads The Life-Ways of Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers Food resources—now and then The Mesolithic Age Mesolithic Sites Microliths Animal bones at mesolithic sites Graves, subsistence, and settlement patterns The journey to get chalcedony The Magnificence of Mesolithic Art Conclusions Chapter 3: The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages, c. 7000–2000 BCE The Neolithic Age and the Beginnings of Food Production Why Domestication? The Identification of Domestication and Food Production in the Archaeological Record The analysis of ancient plant remains The Transition to Food Production in the Indian Subcontinent The Earliest Village Settlements in the Indian Subcontinent, c. 7000–3000 BCE The North-West The Vindhyan Fringes and Other Areas Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Communities, c. 3000–2000 BCE The North and North-West Did people actually live in the Burzahom pits? Rajasthan The Malwa region The western Deccan The middle Ganga plain and eastern India South India The mystery of the ash mounds Community feasting at neolithic Budihal The Life of Early Farmers Changes in Cultic and Belief Systems Female figurines—ordinary women or goddesses? Conclusions Chapter 4: The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE Civilization and Urbanization: Definitions and Implications The 10 characteristics of cities, according to Childe Recent Discoveries and Changing Perspectives Harappan, Indus, or Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilization? Origin: The Significance of the Early Harappan Phase The problems with diffusionist theories The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases The General Features of Mature Harappan Settlements Profiles of Some Harappan Cities, Towns, and Villages The Diversity of the Harappan Subsistence Base Animal bones at Shikarpur Harappan Crafts and Techniques Sculpture in stone and metal The making of long carnelian beads Networks of Trade Shortughai—a Harappan trading post in Afghanistan The Nature and Uses of Writing Religious and Funerary Practices The ‘fire altars’ The Harappan People How healthy were the Harappans? The Ruling Elite Defining a state The Decline of Urban Life The Significance of the Late Harappan Phase Conclusions Chapter 5: Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE Perspectives from Texts Using The Vedas as a Historical Source The date of the Rig Veda Who were the Indo-Aryans? The Culture Reflected in the Family Books of the Rig Veda Samhita Tribes and Wars Hymn to arms (Rig Veda Samhita 6.75) Lineage, clan, tribe Pastoralism, Agriculture, and Other Occupations Varna in the Rig Veda Women, Men, and the Household The family and the household Religion: sacrifices to the gods Hymn to Indra (Rig Veda 2.12) The soma plant and its juice The Historical Milieu of Later Vedic Age Texts Aspects of Everyday Life The emergence of monarchy The ceremony of the jewel offering The varna hierarchy The Purusha-sukta (Rig Veda 10.90) Gender and the household Religion, ritual, and philosophy The Nasadiya hymn (Rig Veda 10.129) The sacrificial arena The atman, according to Uddalaka Aruni Popular beliefs and practices Atharva Veda spells Archaeological Profiles of Different Regions of the Subcontinent, c. 2000–500 BCE Neolithic–Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures The north-west and north The Indo-Gangetic divide, the upper Ganga Valley, and the doab The Sanauli cemetery The copper anthropomorph Black and Red Ware Western India The middle Ganga valley Eastern India The North-East The cultural sequence in central India The chalcolithic farmers of the Deccan The Daimabad bronzes Food, nutrition, and health among the people of Inamgaon Goddesses with and without heads Neolithic–chalcolithic sites of South India Pictures on stone From Copper to Iron: Early Iron Age Cultures of the Subcontinent A clarification about the Indian megaliths The north-west The Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga Valley: the Painted Grey Ware culture Painted Grey Ware The evidence from Rajasthan The Middle and Lower Ganga Valley Central India The Deccan South India The enigma of the megalithic anthropomorphs The Impact of Iron Technology The Problem of Correlating Literary and Archaeological Evidence Conclusions Chapter 6: Cities, Kings, and Renunciants: North India, c. 600–300 BCE The Sources: Literary and Archaeological Panini and his Ashtadhyayi Northern Black Polished Ware The 16 Great States The identification of Taxila The Ganas or Sanghas The conflict between the Sakyas and Kosalans Vassakara seeks the Buddha’s advice on how to defeat the Vajjis Political Conflicts and the Growth of the Magadhan Empire The chronology of the early dynasties of Magadha The Persian and Macedonian Invasions The storming of the Malla citadel Land and Agrarian Expansion From Village to Town: The Example of Atranjikhera The Emergence of City Life Perceptions of the forest Archaeological and Literary Profiles of Early Historical Cities The North-West The Indo-Gangetic Divide, the Upper Ganga Valley, and the Doab The Middle and Lower Ganga Valley Central India and the Deccan Urban Occupations, Crafts, Guilds, and Money The New Social Elites: The Gahapati and Setthi Trade and Traders Class, Kinship, Varna, and Caste Activities in times of adversity Varna and jati Gender, Family, and Household Marriage, according to the Grihyasutras The Renunciatory Tradition The Samannaphala Sutta The Ajivikas Early Buddhism The Life of the Buddha The Buddha’s Teachings The analogy of the raft The Buddhist Sangha and the Laity The Social Implications of the Buddha’s Teachings The Ambattha Sutta Buddhism and Women Patachara’s song The eight conditions imposed on nuns The seven kinds of wives Early Jainism The Jaina Tirthankaras, Vardhamana Mahavira The Jaina Understanding of Reality The Jaina Discipline The liberated man On not killing earth bodies The Social Composition of the Jaina Sangha and Laity The true Brahmana Malli or Mallinatha? Conclusions Chapter 7: Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324–187 BCE The Major Sources for the Maurya Period Kautilya’s Arthashastra The statistical analysis of word frequencies in the Arthashastra Megasthenes’ Indica The Greeks on Megasthenes Ashoka’s Inscriptions The different categories of Ashokan inscriptions and their location References to famine relief in the Mahasthan and Sohgaura inscriptions Archaeological and Numismatic Evidence The Maurya Dynasty Legends of Ashoka The stone portrait of Ashoka at Kanaganahalli Literary and Archaeological Profiles of Cities Pataliputra and the palace, according to Arrian and Aelian Some Aspects of Rural and Urban Life The Nature and Structure of the Maurya Empire Kautilya’s timetable for a king The life of a king, according to Megasthenes (via Strabo) Rock edict 6 (Girnar version) The Maurya state and forest people Ashoka and Buddhism Minor rock edict 1 (Rupnath version) Ashoka’s Dhamma The 5th pillar edict (Delhi–Topra pillar) The 13th rock edict (Shahbazgarhi version) Ashoka’s assessment of his success: the Shar-i-Kuna Greek–Aramaic inscription Sculpture and Architecture Ancient and modern quarries at Chunar The medieval and modern histories of Ashokan pillars The discovery of an Ashokan stupa at Deorkothar The Parkham yaksha, then and now The Decline of the Maurya Empire Conclusions Chapter 8: Interaction and Innovation, c. 200 BCE–300 CE The Political History of North India The Shungas The Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodorus The Indo-Greeks Coins of the Indo-Greeks The Shaka-Pahlavas or Scytho-Parthians The Kushanas The Rabatak inscription The Shaka Kshatrapas of Western India A lake, a storm, and a king The Satavahana Empire in the Deccan The royal portrait gallery in the Naneghat cave Kings and Chieftains in the Far South: The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas The royal drum Villages and Cities Plant remains from Sanghol Cities of the North-West The Indo-Gangetic Divide and the Upper Ganga Valley The Middle and Lower Ganga Valley and Eastern India Chandraketugarh Central and Western India Cities and Towns of the Deccan Cities of the Far South Madurai in the Maduraikkanchi Crafts and Guilds Guilds as bankers Trade and Traders Ancient travellers Long-Distance Trade Kaveripattinam in the Pattinapalai Trade with East and Southeast Asia Indo-Roman Trade Periplus Maris Erythraei (The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) Recent excavations at Arikamedu The Wider Roles of Trade and Traders Aspects of Social Change in North India and the Deccan: Varna, Caste, Gender The Jatakas as a source of social history Society in Early Historical South India An ancient Tamil love poem A heroic death Philosophical Developments: Astika and Nastika Schools The Bhagavad Gita Looking at the History of Religions beyond the Framework of ‘isms’ The Worship of Yakshas and Yakshis, Nagas and Nagis Goddesses, Votive Tanks, and Shrines Vedic Rituals Puranic Hinduism Shivaism The Formation of the Vaishnava Pantheon Krishna and Balarama on Agathocles’ coins Shakti Worship The Emergence of Mahayana Buddhism Monastic and lay practices in texts versus inscriptions The Digambara–Shvetambara Schism in Jainism Religious Architecture and Sculpture Early Hindu Temples and Sculpture Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture Stupa-Monasteries of the North-West Central Indian Stupas —Sanchi and Bharhut Stupas of Andhra Pradesh Early Relief Sculpture at Buddhist Stupa Sites Buddhist Caves in the Western Ghats The Jaina Caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri The Gandhara School of Sculpture Early Stone Sculptures from Vidisha and Mathura Terracotta Art The Patronage of Religious Establishments Gifts of water pots from ancient Gandhara Pious donations at Bandhogarh Conclusions Chapter 9: Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE Political History The Gupta Dynasty Ramagupta—did he exist? The inscription of Chandra and the legend of the unsteady pillar The Vakatakas of the Deccan A queen’s grant Other Dynasties of Peninsular India The Administrative Structure of the Gupta and Vakataka Kingdoms An ancient panchayat? Revenue Resources of States Land Ownership Types of Land, Land Measures, and Land Tenure Royal Land Grants The terms of the Vakataka grants Patterns of Urban History The lifestyle of the nagaraka Craft Production, Guilds, and Trade Aspects of Social Structure: Gender, Forms of Labour, Slavery, and Untouchability Faxian’s account The ganika and kulastri in Sanskrit kavya Patterns of Religious Developments The Emergence of Tantra The Evolution of the Vaishnava Pantheon Shivaism The Cult of the Great Goddess The Worship of Other Deities Buddhism Kumarajiva (343–413 CE) Jainism A Classical Age of Art? Religious Architecture Sculpture Sanskrit Literature The cloud messenger The Natyashastra Astronomy and Mathematics Ancient mathematical and medical manuscripts Medical Knowledge The ideal hospital, according to Charaka Conclusions Chapter 10: Emerging Regional Configurations, c. 600–1200 CE Sources, Literary and Archaeological New evidence regarding Wang Xuance’s missions to India Political Narrative and Political Structure The image of the ideal king in inscriptions of Orissa Rudramadevi, the female king The Deccan The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin The Far South Religious and political symbolism in the Tanjavur temple North India: The Pushyabhutis, Harshavardhana The life and travels of Xuanzang Eastern India Some origin myths of the dynasties of Orissa The Rajput Clans The Tomaras and Delhi in legends and inscriptions Kashmir and the North-West Didda Royal Land Grants Brahmana Beneficiaries The Nature of Brahmadeya Settlements Kara-shasanas and kraya-shasanas The Impact of Brahmana Settlements on Agrarian Relations Land Grants as Part of Larger Social and Cultural Processes Rural Society: Regional Specificities Popular agricultural sayings of early medieval Bengal Urban Processes in Early Medieval India Historical Processes in Early Medieval South India The Nature of South Indian States The segmentary state, according to Southall and Stein Administrative Structures Rural Society The history of a Karnataka village Agriculture and Irrigation Irrigation devices in early medieval Tamil Nadu Betel leaves and areca nuts Urban Processes Weavers and weaving in early medieval Tamil Nadu Trade and Traders Aihole and the Ayyavole The Religious Sphere Buddhism in Early Medieval India A letter from Xuanzang to Prajnadeva Major Centres of Jainism Shankara and Advaita Vedanta The Hindu Cults Vishnuism and Shivaism The Shakti Cult The Goddess as killer of the demon Mahisha South Indian Bhakti: The Alvars and Nayanmars Songs of the Nayanmar saint Appar Andal’s songs Karaikkal Ammaiyar—her life and songs The Philosophical Underpinnings of South Indian Bhakti and Later Developments The vachanas of Basavanna Patronage To Temples Temple women in Chola inscriptions The Architecture and Sculpture of Early Medieval India The Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara Styles of Temple Architecture Western India and the Deccan The discovery of an early medieval quarry site near Pattadakal The Pallava Kingdom The Chola Temples Chola Metal Sculpture Archaeometric analysis of Nataraja images Conclusions A Note on Diacritics Glossary Further Readings References Index Credits Basic Approach Developed As A Comprehensive Introductory Work For Scholars And Students Of Ancient And Early Medieval Indian History, This Books Provides The Most Exhaustive Overview Of The Subject. Dividing The Vast Historical Expanse From The Stone Age To The 12th Century Into Broad Chronological Units, It Constructs Profiles Of Various Geographical Regions Of The Subcontinent, Weaving Together And Analysing An Unparalleled Range Of Literary And Archaeological Evidence. Dealing With Prehistory And Protohistory Of The Subcontinent In Considerable Detail, The Narrative Of The Historical Period Breaks Away From Conventional Text-based History Writing. Providing A Window Into The World Primary Sources, It Incorporates A Large Volume Of Archaeological Data, Along With Literary, Epigraphic, And Numismatic Evidence. Revealing The Ways In Which Our Past Is Constructed, It Explains Fundamental Concepts, And Illuminates Contemporary Debates, Discoveries, And Research. Situating Prevailing Historical Debates In Their Contexts, Ancient And Early Medieval India Presents Balanced Assessments, Encouraging Readers To Independently Evaluate Theories, Evidence, And Arguments. Beautifully Illustrated With Over Four Hundred Photographs, Maps, And Figures, Ancient And Early Medieval India Helps Visualize And Understand The Extraordinarily Rich And Varied Remains Of The Ancient Past Of Indian Subcontinent. It Offers A Scholarly And Nuanced Yet Lucid Account Of India S Early Past, And Will Surely Transform The Discovery Of This Past Into An Exciting Experience. Tabel Of Contents List Of Photographs List Of Maps List Of Figures About The Author Preface Acknowledgements A Readers Guide 1. Understanding Literary And Archaeological Sources 2. Hunter-gatherers Of The Palaeolithic And Mesolithic Ages 3. The Transition To Food Production: Neolithic,neolithic Chalcolithic, And Chalcolithic Villages, C. 7000 2000 Bce 4. The Harappan Civilization, C. 2600 1900 Bce 5. Cultural Transitions: Images From Texts And Archaeology, C. 2000 600 Bce 6. Cities, Kings, And Renunciants: North India, C. 600 300 Bce 7. Power And Piety: The Maurya Empire, C. 324 187 Bce 8. Interaction And Innovation, C. 200 Bce 300 Ce 9. Aesthetics And Empire, C. 300 600 Ce 10. Emerging Regional Configurations, C. 600 1200 Ce Note On Diacritics Glossary Further Readings References Index Author Bio Upinder Singh Is Professor In The Department Of History At The University Of Delhi. She Taught History At St. Stephen S College, Delhi, From 1981 Until 2004, After Which She Joined The Faculty Of The Department Of History At The University Of Delhi. Professor Singh S Wide Range Of Research Interests And Expertise Include The Analysis Of Ancient And Early Medieval Inscriptions; Social And Economic History; Religious Institutions And Patrona≥ History Of Archaeology; And Modern History Of Ancient Monuments. Her Research Papers Have Been Published In Various National And International Journals. Her Published Books Include: Kings, Brahmanas, And Temples In Orissa: An Epigraphic Study (ad 300 1147) (1994); Ancient Delhi (1999; 2nd Edn., 2006); A Book For Children, Mysteries Of The Past: Archaeological Sites In India (2002); The Discovery Of Ancient India: Early Archaeologists And The Beginnings Of Archaeology (2004); And Delhi: Ancient History (edited, 2006). Developed as a comprehensive introductory work for scholars and students of ancient and early medieval Indian history, this book provides the most exhaustive overview of the subject. Dividing the vast historical expanse from the stone age to the 12th century into broad chronological units, it constructs profiles of various geographical regions of the subcontinent, weaving together and analysing an unparalleled range of literary and archaeological evidence. Dealing with prehistory and protohistory of the subcontinent in considerable detail, the narrative of the historical period breaks away from conventional text-based history writing. Providing a window into the world of primary sources, it incorporates a large volume of archaeological data, along with literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence. Revealing the ways in which our past is constructed, it explains fundamental concepts, and illuminates contemporary debates, discoveries, and research. Situating prevailing historical debates in their contexts, Ancient and Early Medieval India presents balanced assessments, encouraging readers to independently evaluate theories, evidence, and arguments. Beautifully illustrated with over four hundred photographs, maps, and figures, Ancient and Early Medieval India helps visualize and understand the extraordinarily rich and varied remains of the ancient past of Indian subcontinent. It offers a scholarly and nuanced—yet lucid—account of India’s early past, and will surely transform the discovery of this past into an exciting experience.