Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World (Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries through the Ages)

Krebs Robert E. Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world [Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries through the ages] 2003 [pdf 398sc 377c.23,23mb] This reference work describes the trial-and-error experiments, discoveries, and inventions of early humans who lived from before recorded history to the Middle Ages. Krebs travels through the ancient periods of Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica, to the classical Greek and Roman periods, and finally to the Christian era, providing students with the link between science and history, while revealing information about many cultures around the world. Each entry provides the who, when, and where of each discovery, invention, or experiment. Entries include calendars, gunpowder, anesthesia, contraception, spontaneous generation, the Arctic Circle, language, and tides.Part of the Groundbreaking Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries through the Ages series, this book provides readers with a detailed look early humans' relation to world around them and the scientific advancements they made. It will be useful to high school and college students, teachers, and the general public interested in the history and science behind ancient civilizations. Contents......Page 8 Illustrations......Page 12 Series Foreword......Page 14 Introduction......Page 18 Background and History (Agriculture)......Page 22 Background and Breeding (Animal Domestication)......Page 33 Principal Domesticated Species and Why They Were Chosen......Page 37 Development of Animal Equipment......Page 45 Summary......Page 51 Background and History......Page 54 Astrology......Page 60 The Geocentric View of the Universe......Page 62 The Heliocentric View of the Universe......Page 66 Compilation of Astronomical Maps and Star Catalogs......Page 68 Discovery of Eclipses, Comets, Novas, and Sunspots......Page 70 Calculating the Earth's Circumference......Page 73 Calculating the Earth's Ecliptic......Page 74 Tides......Page 75 Instrumentation......Page 76 Summary......Page 80 Background and History......Page 82 The Greeks of Ionia......Page 83 Athens—the Center of Ancient Learning......Page 85 Taxonomy......Page 87 Zoology and the Classification of Animals......Page 91 Botany and the Classification of Plants......Page 95 Reproduction......Page 97 Summary......Page 100 Background and History......Page 102 Language......Page 104 Writing and the Alphabet......Page 108 Paper......Page 117 Printing......Page 121 Postal Systems......Page 122 Summary......Page 124 Background and History......Page 126 Simple Machines......Page 127 Building Materials and Construction......Page 136 Water Systems......Page 153 Summary......Page 167 Background and History......Page 170 The Mathematics of Mesopotamia (Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian)......Page 173 The Mathematics of Egypt......Page 176 The Mathematics of China......Page 180 The Mathematics of Ancient Greece......Page 183 The Mathematics of the Indus Civilizations......Page 190 Roman Numerals......Page 192 Abacus......Page 194 Pi (π) or Squaring the Circle or "Perfect Exhaustion"......Page 195 Zero......Page 197 Summary......Page 199 Background and History......Page 200 Primitive Medicine......Page 201 History of Disease......Page 203 Medicine in Mesopotamia......Page 204 Medicine in Palestine (Israel)......Page 206 Medicine in Egypt......Page 207 Medicine of the Indus Civilizations......Page 211 Medicine in China......Page 213 Medicine in Ancient Greece......Page 218 Medicine in Alexandria (Egypt)......Page 223 Medicine in the Roman Empire......Page 224 Summary......Page 230 Background and History......Page 232 Body Ornamentation......Page 233 Contraception......Page 238 Glass......Page 240 Heating, Cooling, and Refrigeration......Page 241 Ink......Page 243 Lighting......Page 244 Locks......Page 246 Mirrors......Page 248 Pottery......Page 249 Sanitation......Page 255 Weaving......Page 258 Background and History......Page 264 Fire and Its "Discovery" as a Tool......Page 266 The Three-Age System......Page 267 Metallurgy......Page 269 Alchemy and Chemistry......Page 274 Philosophy of the Physical Sciences......Page 279 Summary......Page 285 Background and History......Page 288 Absolute Time......Page 289 Relative Time......Page 291 Calendars......Page 292 Timekeeping Devices......Page 308 Summary......Page 313 Background and History......Page 316 Dating the Origin of Tools and Weapons......Page 317 Survival Tools......Page 319 Colonizing (Working) Tools......Page 323 Weaponry......Page 327 Summary......Page 339 Background and History......Page 342 Transportation......Page 343 Trade......Page 346 Navigation and Exploration......Page 351 History of Shipbuilding......Page 356 Summary......Page 368 A......Page 370 D......Page 371 F......Page 372 N......Page 373 R......Page 374 V......Page 375 Z......Page 376 Selected Bibliography......Page 378 C......Page 384 N......Page 385 Z......Page 386 A......Page 388 C......Page 389 D......Page 390 H......Page 391 L......Page 392 M......Page 393 P......Page 394 S......Page 395 V......Page 396 Z......Page 397 Contents 8 Illustrations 12 Series Foreword 14 Introduction 18 1. Agriculture and Animal Domestication 22 Background and History (Agriculture) 22 Background and Breeding (Animal Domestication) 33 Principal Domesticated Species and Why They Were Chosen 37 Development of Animal Equipment 45 Summary 51 2. Astronomy 54 Background and History 54 Astrology 60 The Geocentric View of the Universe 62 The Heliocentric View of the Universe 66 Compilation of Astronomical Maps and Star Catalogs 68 Discovery of Eclipses, Comets, Novas, and Sunspots 70 Calculating the Earth's Circumference 73 Calculating the Length of the Solar Year 74 Calculating the Earth's Ecliptic 74 Tides 75 Instrumentation 76 Summary 80 3. Biology, Botany, and Zoology 82 Background and History 82 The Greeks of Ionia 83 Athens—the Center of Ancient Learning 85 Taxonomy 87 Zoology and the Classification of Animals 91 Botany and the Classification of Plants 95 Reproduction 97 Summary 100 4. Communication 102 Background and History 102 Language 104 Writing and the Alphabet 108 Paper 117 Printing 121 Postal Systems 122 Summary 124 5. Engineering and Machinery 126 Background and History 126 Simple Machines 127 Building Materials and Construction 136 Water Systems 153 Summary 167 6. Mathematics 170 Background and History 170 The Mathematics of Mesopotamia (Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian) 173 The Mathematics of Egypt 176 The Mathematics of China 180 The Mathematics of Ancient Greece 183 The Mathematics of the Indus Civilizations 190 Roman Numerals 192 Abacus 194 Pi (π) or Squaring the Circle or "Perfect Exhaustion" 195 Zero 197 Summary 199 7. Medicine and Health 200 Background and History 200 Primitive Medicine 201 History of Disease 203 Medicine in Mesopotamia 204 Medicine in Palestine (Israel) 206 Medicine in Egypt 207 Medicine of the Indus Civilizations 211 Medicine in China 213 Medicine in Ancient Greece 218 Medicine in Alexandria (Egypt) 223 Medicine in the Roman Empire 224 Summary 230 8. Personal and Household 232 Background and History 232 Body Ornamentation 233 Contraception 238 Glass 240 Heating, Cooling, and Refrigeration 241 Ink 243 Lighting 244 Locks 246 Mirrors 248 Pottery 249 Sanitation 255 Weaving 258 9. The Physical Sciences 264 Background and History 264 Fire and Its "Discovery" as a Tool 266 The Three-Age System 267 Metallurgy 269 Alchemy and Chemistry 274 Philosophy of the Physical Sciences 279 Summary 285 10. Timekeeping 288 Background and History 288 Absolute Time 289 Relative Time 291 Calendars 292 Timekeeping Devices 308 Summary 313 11. Tools and Weaponry 316 Background and History 316 Dating the Origin of Tools and Weapons 317 Survival Tools 319 Colonizing (Working) Tools 323 Weaponry 327 Summary 339 12. Transportation, Trade, and Navigation 342 Background and History 342 Transportation 343 Trade 346 Navigation and Exploration 351 History of Shipbuilding 356 Summary 368 Glossary 370 A 370 B 371 C 371 D 371 E 372 F 372 G 373 H 373 I 373 M 373 N 373 O 374 P 374 R 374 S 375 T 375 V 375 W 376 Z 376 Selected Bibliography 378 Name Index 384 A 384 B 384 C 384 D 385 E 385 F 385 G 385 H 385 I 385 J 385 K 385 L 385 M 385 N 385 O 386 P 386 R 386 S 386 T 386 V 386 W 386 X 386 Y 386 Z 386 Subject Index 388 A 388 B 389 C 389 D 390 E 391 F 391 G 391 H 391 I 392 J 392 K 392 L 392 M 393 N 394 O 394 P 394 Q 395 R 395 S 395 T 396 U 396 V 396 W 397 Y 397 Z 397 Encompassing Scientific Achievements From China, The Mediterranean World, Mesoamerica, And Elsewhere, This Text Describes Technological And Scientific Inventions From Prehistory To The Middle Ages. Separate Chapters Are Devoted To Agriculture, Astronomy, Communications, Engineering, Timekeeping, Tools And Weaponry, Medicine And Health, Mathematics, Transportation And Trade, The Physical Sciences, Botany And Zoology, The Physical Sciences, Personal And Household Items. The Text Is Written To Be Understandable To Students At A High School Level. 1. Agriculture And Animal Domestication -- Background And Breeding (animal Domestication) -- Principal Domesticated Species And Why They Were Chosen -- Development Of Animal Equipment -- 2. Astronomy -- Astrology -- The Geocentric View Of The Universe -- The Heliocentric View Of The Universe -- Compilation Of Astronomical Maps And Star Catalogs -- Discovery Of Eclipses, Comets, Novas, And Sunspots -- Calculating The Earth's Circumference -- Calculating The Length Of The Solar Year -- Calculating The Earth's Ecliptic -- Tides -- Instrumentation -- 3. Biology, Botany, And Zoology -- The Greeks Of Ionia -- Athens -- The Center Of Ancient Learning -- Taxonomy -- Zoology And The Classification Of Animals -- Botany And The Classification Of Plants -- Reproduction -- 4. Communication -- Language -- Writing And The Alphabet -- Paper -- Printing -- Postal Systems -- 5. Engineering And Machinery -- Simple Machines -- Building Materials And Construction -- Water Systems -- 6. Mathematics --^ The Mathematics Of Mesopotamia (sumerian, Akkadian, And Babylonian) -- The Mathematics Of Egypt -- The Mathematics Of China -- The Mathematics Of Ancient Greece -- The Mathematics Of The Indus Civilizations -- Roman Numerals -- Abacus -- Pi ([pi]) Or Squaring The Circle Or Perfect Exhaustion -- Zero -- 7. Medicine And Health -- Primitive Medicine -- History Of Disease -- Medicine In Mesopotamia -- Medicine In Palestine (israel) -- Medicine In Egypt -- Medicine Of The Indus Civilizations -- Medicine In China -- Medicine In Ancient Greece -- Medicine In Alexandria (egypt) -- Medicine In The Roman Empire -- 8. Personal And Household -- Body Ornamentation -- Contraception -- Glass -- Heating, Cooling, And Refrigeration -- Ink -- Lighting -- Locks -- Mirrors -- Pottery -- Sanitation -- Weaving -- 9. The Physical Sciences -- Fire And Its Discovery As A Tool -- The Three-age System -- Metallurgy -- Alchemy And Chemistry -- Philosophy Of The Physical Sciences -- 10. Timekeeping --^ Absolute Time -- Relative Time -- Calendars -- Timekeeping Devices -- 11. Tools And Weaponry -- Dating The Origin Of Tools And Weapons -- Survival Tools -- Colonizing (working) Tools -- Weaponry -- 12. Transportation, Trade, And Navigation -- Transportation -- Trade -- Navigation And Exploration -- History Of Shipbuilding. Robert E. Krebs And Carolyn A. Krebs. Includes Bibliographical References (p. [357]-361) And Indexes. This reference work describes the trial-and-error experiments, discoveries, and inventions of early humans who lived from before recorded history to the Middle Ages. Krebs travels through the ancient periods of Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica, to the classical Greek and Roman periods, and finally to the Christian era, providing students with the link between science and history, while revealing information about many cultures around the world. Each entry provides the who, when, and where of each discovery, invention, or experiment. Entries include calendars, gunpowder, anesthesia, contraception, spontaneous generation, the Arctic Circle, language, and tides.

Part of the Groundbreaking Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries through the Ages series, this book provides readers with a detailed look early humans' relation to world around them and the scientific advancements they made. It will be useful to high school and college students, teachers, and the general public interested in the history and science behind ancient civilizations. Given the timeline for the evolution of our species that is described in this hook's introduction, it is extraordinary that all of the agricultural, technological, and cultural advancements that have so enriched our lives have taken place since the Neolithic Period that began around 10,000 B.C.e., following the retreat of the last ice age.