Graphical thermodynamics and ideal gas power cycles : ideal gas thermodynamics in brief

In this book, an almost new approach to modern thermodynamics has been applied. One or more useful qualitative discussion statements have been extracted from each equation. These and other important statements were numbered and their titles were situated in an index titled “Hilal and Others’ statements, definitions and rules.” This ensures very quick obtaining of the required statements, rules, definitions, equations, and their theoretical base that will ease readers qualitative discussions and calculations. Momentum Press Thermal Science and Energy Engineering Collection Cover 1 GRAPHICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND IDEAL GAS POWER CYCLES: IDEAL GAS THERMODYNAMICS IN BRIEF 4 CONTENTS 8 LIST OF FIGURES 16 LIST OF TABLES 20 PREFACE 22 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 26 NOMENCLATURE 28 CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 32 1.1 UNIT SYSTEMS 32 1.1.1 INTRODUCTION 32 1.1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 33 1.1.2.1 Deriving some secondary units from the primary ones 36 1.1.3 THE U.S. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM (ALSO KNOWN AS THE ENGLISH SYSTEM) 37 1.1.4 THE TECHNICAL UNIT SYSTEM 37 1.1.5 FORCE AND MASS MAIN UNITS’ CONVERSIONS 38 1.1.6 WEIGHT OF A BODY 39 1.1.7 PRESSURE UNITS 39 1.1.8 OTHERS’ DEFINITIONS 40 1.1.9 ENERGY UNITS 41 1.1.10 TEMPERATURE UNITS 43 1.1.11 ABOUT DIMENSIONS’ UNITS IN THE CALCULATING EQUATIONS 46 1.2 CALCULATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS IN THERMODYNAMICS 48 1.2.1 CALCULATING THE AREA UNDER A PLANE CURVE 51 1.2.1.1 Graphical calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve 65 1.2.1.2 Analytical calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve 69 1.2.1.3 Tabular calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve 70 1.2.2 TABULAR DETERMINATION OF y-VALUE VERSUS A GIVEN x-VALUE 71 1.2.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO FUNCTIONS OF THE SAME VARIABLE 73 1.3 SUMMARY 79 CHAPTER ENDNOTES 80 CHAPTER 2: THE WORKING FLUID AND ITS BASIC PROPERTIES 82 2.1 ENERGY AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS 82 2.1.1 INTRODUCTION 82 2.1.2 TYPES OF ENERGY 82 2.1.3 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION 83 2.2 THE HEAT ENGINE 83 2.3 THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMING THERMAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL IN HEAT ENGINES 86 2.3.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (IN THE BROAD SENSE) 87 2.3.2 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 89 2.4 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 89 2.4.1 INTRODUCTION 89 2.4.2 THE PURE SUBSTANCE AND ITS MOLECULES 89 2.4.3 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: 96 2.4.4 THE IDEAL AND REAL GAS SUBPHASES 96 2.4.5 THE THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM (THE SYSTEM) 98 2.4.5.1 Introduction 98 2.4.5.2 Types of thermodynamic systems 98 2.4.6 INTRODUCTION TO THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY 100 2.4.7 THE STATE OF A GAS 101 2.4.7.1 The definition of the state of a system 102 2.4.7.2 The equilibrium state 105 2.4.7.3 Some state properties 106 2.4.8 MODES OF WORK 109 2.4.9 THE SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE AND THE SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE SYSTEM 109 2.4.10 THE STATE CHANGE PROCESSES OF A SYSTEM (GAS) 111 2.4.11 THE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE 111 2.4.12 THE EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS AND THE CONDITIONS TO REALIZE IT 112 2.4.12.1 The equilibrium process 112 2.4.12.2 The conditions for achieving an equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium) process 113 2.4.12.3 The minimum required number of MRs to achieve an equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium) WF state change process 115 2.4.13 THE REVERSIBLE PROCESS AND THE CONDITIONS TO REALIZE IT 116 2.4.13.1 The definitions of the reversible process 116 2.4.13.2 The practiced in thermodynamics conditions for achieving a reversible process 117 2.4.13.3 Irreversible processes 118 2.4.13.4 The internally reversible processes 119 2.5 IDEAL-GAS LAWS 120 2.5.1 INTRODUCTION 120 2.5.2 IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE (CLAPEYRON EQUATION) ABR 121 2.5.3 AVOGADRO’S LAW 123 2.5.3.1 Others’ statements (OSs) 123 2.6 IDEAL-GAS MIXTURES 125 2.6.1 THE LAWS OF IDEAL-GAS MIXTURES THAT CAN BE DERIVED ON THE BASIS OF THE KMT 126 2.6.1.1 Dalton’s law 127 2.6.1.2 Amagat’s law 127 2.6.2 GAS MIXTURE COMPOSITION 127 2.7 THE BOUNDARY WORK CALCULATION 130 2.8 RECOGNIZING THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 132 2.9 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PROPERTIES OF REAL GASES 134 CONCLUSIONS 135 2.10 SUMMARY 135 CHAPTER ENDNOTES 137 CHAPTER 3: THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 140 3.1 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS DURING GAS STATE CHANGE PROCESSES 140 3.1.1 THE SPECIFIC TRANSFERRED HEAT AND THE SPECIFIC HEAT 140 3.1.1.1 Basic definitions and relations 140 3.1.2 THE CALORIC INTENSIVE PROPERTIES 144 3.1.2.1 Internal energy 145 3.1.2.2 Enthalpy 151 3.1.2.3 Ideal gas entropy 152 3.1.3 THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE GAS STATE AND OF THE GAS STATE CHANGE PROCESSES) 160 3.1.4 GENERAL FORM EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING THE BOUNDARY WORK AND TRANSFERRED HEAT 161 3.1.5 SOME OF THE RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND NOTES, MAINLY USED IN THIS BOOK, THAT SIMPLIFY THE GRAPHICAL CALCULATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS 162 3.1.6 THE DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES 170 3.1.6.1 The experimental determination of the specific heats of ideal gases 170 3.1.6.2 The theoretical determination of the specific heats of ideal gases 172 3.1.7 CALCULATING THE TRANSFERRED HEAT DURING PHYSICAL IDEAL GAS STATE CHANGE PROCESSES 175 3.1.7.1 The pure analytical calculations of the transferred heat during physical ideal gas state change processes 177 3.1.7.2 About the bad effect of abbreviating the calculating equations by cutting off their higher-degree terms 181 3.1.7.3 Some additional analyses on Equations (3-36) 183 3.1.7.4 The tabular calculations of the transferred heat during physical ideal gas state change processes 186 3.1.7.5 The almost exact (highly accurate) calculation of the transferred heat 187 3.1.7.6 The approximate calculations of the transferred heat during physical ideal gas state change processes 188 3.1.8 THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF A MIXTURE 192 3.2 ABOUT HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS FOR CHEMICAL STATE CHANGE PROCESSES OF A GAS 193 3.3 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 195 3.4 THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 196 3.4.1 INTRODUCTION 196 3.4.2 THE FIRST LAW FORMS 196 3.5 THE ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 197 3.6 SUMMARY 199 CHAPTER ENDNOTES 201 CHAPTER 4: CALCULATIONS OF IDEAL GAS PHYSICAL STATE CHANGE PROCESSES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS (PART I) 204 4.1 INTRODUCTION 204 4.2 THE SPECIAL CASES OF THE GAS STATE CHANGE PROCESSES AND THEIR REPRESENTATION ON PROPERTY DIAGRAMS 204 4.3 THE SPECIAL CASES OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR ANY GAS 208 4.3.1 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE ISOCHORIC PROCESS 208 4.3.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE ISOBARIC PROCESS 209 4.3.3 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE ADIABATIC PROCESS 210 4.3.4 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS 210 4.3.5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE CLOSED PROCESS 211 4.4 CALCULATING THE IDEAL GAS INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY CHANGES 212 4.4.1 CALCULATING THE IDEAL GAS INTERNAL ENERGY CHANGE 212 4.4.2 CALCULATING THE IDEAL GAS ENTHALPY CHANGE 213 4.5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR IDEAL GASES 215 4.5.1 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR IDEAL GAS ISOTHERMAL PROCESS 216 4.6 THE MEYER EQUATION 217 4.7 SUMMARY 218 CHAPTER 5: THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 220 5.1 INTRODUCTION 220 5.2 THE OBSERVED PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH THE THERMAL–MECHANICAL TRANSFORMATIONS 221 5.2.1 PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRANSFORMATION OF HEAT ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY 221 5.2.1.1 Types of heat engines in terms of their ability to operate continuously 221 5.2.1.2 The cyclic (periodical) operating engine 222 5.2.1.3 The no-COE 222 5.2.2 PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRANSFORMATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY INTO THERMAL ENERGY 223 5.2.3 PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER WHEN TWO OBJECTS (HOT AND COLD) ARE CONTACTED 223 5.3 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 223 5.4 THE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE 227 5.4.1 THE DIRECT THERMODYNAMIC (POWER) CYCLE 228 5.4.2 THE REVERSE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE 230 5.4.3 NOTES ABOUT THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES AND CYCLIC OPERATING MACHINES 231 5.4.4 EVALUATING THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES 235 5.4.4.1 Evaluating engine cycles (the direct cycles) 237 5.4.5 THE EQUIPOLLENT THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES 242 5.5 THE CARNOT CYCLE 243 5.6 THE REVERSE CARNOT CYCLE 248 5.7 INTRODUCTION TO CARNOT THEOREM (EXISTING FORMULATIONS OF CARNOT THEORY) 255 5.8 ENTROPY 256 5.9 HEAT REGENERATION 267 5.9.1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 268 5.9.1.1 The regeneratable cycle 268 5.9.1.2 The fully reversible regeneratable cycle 268 5.9.1.3 The regenerative cycle 269 5.9.1.4 The nonregenerative cycle 269 5.9.1.5 The nonregeneratable cycle 269 5.9.2 THE HEAT REGENERATOR 269 5.9.3 ABOUT CYCLE’S ABILITY FOR HEAT REGENERATION 271 5.9.3.1 The regeneratability condition 271 5.9.3.2 Discussing the regeneratability of some direct thermodynamic cycles 271 5.10 ABOUT THE THEORETICAL REALIZATION OF REVERSIBLE GAS STATE CHANGE PROCESSES: IN BRIEF (THE FULL ANALYSIS IN THE SECOND VOLUME) 274 5.10.1 INTRODUCTION 274 5.10.2 ABOUT THE IMAGINARY MODELS IN THERMODYNAMICS 275 5.10.3 THE TRADITIONAL/CLASSICAL MODEL/METHOD FOR REALIZING A REVERSIBLE PROCESS 275 5.11 SUMMARY 283 CHAPTER ENDNOTES 285 ABOUT THE AUTHOR 288 INDEX 292 Ad Page 302 Back Cover 303 absolutely reversible cycle; Carnot; Carnot’s efficiency; closed thermodynamic system; cycle’s ability for heat regeneration; the equivalent thermodynamic cycles; Ericsson and Dual cycles; Helal air standard cycle; Helal method; heat regeneration; ideal gas property tables; the imperfection in the classical proof of Carnot’s efficiency (theorem) and its exclusion; a new,polytropic ideal gas state change process; polytropic state change process; the regeneratability condition; reversible cycle recognizing thermodynamic properties; second law of thermodynamics; Stirling cycle; the theoretical realization of reversible gas state change processes; thermal efficiency. absolutely reversible cycle,Carnot,Carnot’s efficiency,closed thermodynamic system,cycle’s ability for heat regeneration,the equivalent thermodynamic cycles,Ericsson and Dual cycles,Helal air standard cycle,Helal method,heat regeneration,ideal gas property tables,the imperfection in the classical proof of Carnot’s efficiency (theorem) and its exclusion,a new,polytropic ideal gas state change process,polytropic state change process,the regeneratability condition,reversible cycle recognizing thermodynamic properties,second law of thermodynamics,Stirling cycle,the theoretical realization of reversible gas state change processes,thermal efficiency.