Grainger and Allison's diagnostic radiology : a textbook of medical imaging

Long recognized as the standard general reference in the field, this completely revised edition of Grainger and Allison's Diagnostic Radiology provides all the information that a trainee needs to master to successfully take their professional certification examinations as well as providing the practicing radiologist with a refresher on topics that may have been forgotten. Organized along an organ and systems basis, this resource covers all diagnostic imaging modalities in an integrated, correlative fashion and focuses on those topics that really matter to a trainee radiologist in the initial years of training. ...the latest edition ... continues the fine tradition set by its predecessors.... help young radiologists to prepare for their examinations and continue to be a source of information to be dipped in and out of ... senior radiologists will also find the book useful ... Reviewed by: RAD Magazine March 2015 I am sure the current edition will be successful and help young radiologists to prepare for their examinations and continue to be a source of information to be dipped in and out of... Reviewed by RAD Magazine, March 2015 Master the field and prepare for certification or recertification with a succinct, comprehensive account of the entire spectrum of imaging modalities and their clinical applications. Effectively apply the latest techniques and approaches with complete updates throughout including 4 new sections (Abdominal Imaging, The Spine, Oncological Imaging, and Interventional Radiology) and 28 brand new chapters. Gain the fresh perspective of two new editors-Jonathan Gillard and Cornelia Schaefer-Prokop -- eight new section editors -- Michael Maher, Andrew Grainger, Philip O'Connor, Rolf Jager, Vicky Goh, Catherine Owens, Anna Maria Belli, Michael Lee -- and 135 new contributors. Stay current with the latest developments in imaging techniques such as CT, MR, ultrasound, and coverage of hot topics such as: Image guided biopsy and ablation techniques and Functional and molecular imaging. Solve even your toughest diagnostic challenges with guidance from nearly 4,000 outstanding illustrations. Quickly grasp the fundamentals you need to know through a more concise, streamlined format. Access the full text online at Expert Consult. Cover......Page 1 Grainger & Allison's Diagnostic Radiology, 6th Edition......Page 4 Copyright page......Page 5 Preface......Page 6 List of Section Editors......Page 7 List of Contributors......Page 8 Deterministic and Stochastic Effects......Page 17 Fetal Exposure......Page 18 Legislation and Principles of Radiation Protection......Page 19 Estimating Patient Doses......Page 20 Detectors for Radiography and Fluoroscopy......Page 21 Optimising Patient Dose in Nuclear Medicine......Page 22 Infants and Children......Page 23 Distance, Time and Shielding......Page 24 Radiation Hazards from Nuclear Medicine Patients......Page 25 Optimised Dose......Page 26 Dose–Length Products (DLPs)......Page 27 AEC System: Principles and Pitfalls......Page 28 Side-by-Side Comparisons of Standard and Optimised CT Studies......Page 29 The Tube Potential......Page 30 CT of the Sinus......Page 31 CT of the Abdomen and Pelvis......Page 32 Summary and Conclusion......Page 35 Further Reading......Page 39 Online-only References......Page 40 Barium-Based Contrast Agents......Page 42 High-Osmolar Ionic Contrast Media (Fig. 2-3)......Page 43 Pharmacokinetics......Page 44 Contrast Media for MR Imaging......Page 46 Pharmacokinetics......Page 47 Tissue-Specific MR Contrast Agents......Page 50 Contrast Media for Ultrasound......Page 51 Safety......Page 52 Summary of Product Characteristics (sPc)......Page 53 Idiosyncratic Reactions......Page 54 Treatment......Page 55 Risk Factors......Page 58 Acute Renal Adverse Reactions (Contrast-Induced Nephropathy)......Page 59 Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF)......Page 62 Extravasation......Page 65 Further Reading......Page 66 Online-only References......Page 68 Ultrasonic Transducers......Page 69 Attenuation......Page 70 Reflection......Page 71 The Pulse-Echo Method......Page 72 Beam Steering......Page 73 Resolution......Page 75 Artefacts......Page 77 Shadowing and Increased Through Transmission......Page 78 Theoretical Basis of Doppler Studies......Page 80 Characteristics of Blood Flow......Page 81 Information in the Doppler Signal......Page 82 Pulsatility Measurements......Page 83 Colour Doppler......Page 84 Volume Flow Measurement......Page 85 Velocity Information......Page 86 Colour Artefacts......Page 87 Contrast Agents......Page 89 Safety......Page 90 High Frequencies, 3D, Elastography......Page 91 New Developments......Page 92 Principles of Computed Tomography......Page 93 X-Ray Detectors......Page 94 Slice Wars and Beyond......Page 95 Reconstruction of Arbitrary Section Thickness and Orientation......Page 96 Image Quality and Radiation Dose......Page 97 Preparation......Page 99 Optimising Image Acquisition......Page 100 Image Analysis......Page 101 Cardiac CT......Page 102 Subtraction Imaging......Page 104 Motion Analysis......Page 105 Further Reading......Page 106 Online-only References......Page 107 Spin Physics......Page 108 Excitation and Relaxation: Free Induction Decay and Echoes......Page 109 2D Encoding......Page 110 Basic Two-Dimensional Spin-Echo Sequence......Page 112 Fast Spin Echo (FSE) or Turbo Spin Echo (TSE) or Rapid Acquisition with Relaxation Enhancement (RARE)......Page 113 Spin-Echo Echo Planar Imaging......Page 115 Basic Two-Dimensional Gradient-Echo Sequence......Page 116 Three-Dimensional Gradient Echo......Page 117 Instrumentation......Page 118 Magnets......Page 119 Radiofrequency......Page 120 Physical Parameters That Provide Contrast......Page 121 T1 (Longitudinal Relaxation Time or Spin–Lattice Relaxation Time)......Page 122 Exogenous Contrast Agents......Page 123 Proton Spectroscopy......Page 125 Time-of-Flight MRA......Page 126 Contrast-Enhanced MRA......Page 127 Non-Contrast-Enhanced MRA (Fresh Blood Imaging)......Page 128 Perfusion (Microvascular Flow)......Page 129 Diffusion......Page 130 Time-Varying Magnetic Field Gradients......Page 131 Further Reading......Page 132 Online-only References......Page 133 Introduction and General Principles......Page 134 Structure of the Atom......Page 135 Radioactivity......Page 136 Beta Radiation......Page 137 Interaction of X and Gamma Radiation with Matter......Page 138 Detection System......Page 139 Collimators......Page 140 Gamma Camera Limitations......Page 141 Principles of Emission Tomography (PET and SPECT)......Page 142 SPECT Design and Characteristics......Page 143 PET Design and Characteristics......Page 144 Hybrid Systems: SPECT-CT, PET-CT and PET-MRI......Page 145 Quantification......Page 147 Image Interpretation......Page 148 Non-Imaging Applications......Page 149 Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 150 Further Reading......Page 153 Online-only References......Page 154 Chapter Outline......Page 155 Measurement of Tracer Concentration......Page 156 Wash-in Studies......Page 157 Direct and Indirect Indices of Permeability......Page 158 Principles of Molecular Imaging......Page 159 Molecular Imaging and Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1......Page 160 Surrogate Molecular Imaging......Page 161 Indirect Molecular Imaging......Page 162 Applications of Molecular Imaging......Page 163 Appendix 1......Page 164 Appendix 5......Page 165 Further Reading......Page 166 Online-only References......Page 167 Equipment Considerations......Page 169 Novel Radiographic Techniques......Page 170 Computed Tomography of the Thorax......Page 171 Dual-Energy CT......Page 172 Dose Considerations......Page 173 Window Settings......Page 176 High-Resolution Computed Tomography......Page 177 Ultrasound......Page 178 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 179 Ventilation–Perfusion Scintigraphy......Page 180 Further Reading......Page 181 Online-only References......Page 182 The Lungs......Page 184 The Central Airways......Page 187 The Lungs Beyond the Hila......Page 188 The Hila......Page 190 The Mediastinum......Page 193 Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 194 Right Mediastinum above the Azygos Vein......Page 200 Supra-aortic Mediastinum on the Lateral View......Page 202 Paraspinal Lines......Page 203 The Diaphragm......Page 204 Further Reading......Page 205 Online-only References......Page 206 Soft-Tissue Calcification......Page 207 Soft-Tissue Tumours......Page 208 Sternum......Page 209 Clavicles......Page 210 Free Pleural Fluid.......Page 211 Loculated (Encysted, Encapsulated) Pleural Fluid.......Page 213 Ultrasound......Page 214 Exudates and Transudates......Page 215 Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax......Page 216 Typical Signs......Page 217 Tension Pneumothorax......Page 218 Pleural Thickening and Fibrothorax......Page 219 Localised Pleural Tumours......Page 221 Intervention......Page 222 Pleural Aspiration.......Page 223 Pleural Biopsy.......Page 224 The Diaphragm......Page 225 Eventration......Page 226 Movement and Paralysis......Page 227 Diaphragmatic Hernias......Page 228 Diaphragmatic Trauma......Page 229 Further Reading......Page 231 Online-only References......Page 232 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 233 Ultrasound......Page 234 Thyroid Masses......Page 235 Thymomas......Page 236 Thymic Neuroendocrine Tumour (Thymic Carcinoid)......Page 240 Germ-Cell Tumours of the Mediastinum......Page 241 Teratomas......Page 242 Non-Seminomatous Germ-Cell Tumours......Page 243 Malignant Lymphoma and Leukaemia......Page 245 Enhancing Lymph Nodes......Page 246 Tuberculosis and Histoplasmosis.......Page 247 Oesophageal Duplication Cysts......Page 248 Neurenteric Cysts......Page 249 Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumours......Page 251 Sympathetic Ganglion Tumours......Page 252 Mediastinal Paragangliomas......Page 253 Extramedullary Haematopoiesis......Page 254 Fatty Lesions in the Mediastinum......Page 255 Acute Mediastinitis......Page 256 Fibrosing Mediastinitis......Page 257 Pneumomediastinum......Page 259 Pericardium......Page 261 Pericardial Cysts and Diverticula......Page 262 Pericardial Effusion......Page 263 Cardiac Tamponade......Page 264 Pericarditis......Page 265 Pericardial Neoplasms......Page 266 Further Reading......Page 269 Online-only References......Page 270 Clinical Utility and Limitations of Chest Radiography and CT......Page 273 Patterns of Pulmonary Infection......Page 274 Complications of Pneumonia......Page 276 Streptococcus pneumoniae.......Page 277 Chlamydia.......Page 278 Actinomyces sp.......Page 279 Pseudomonas aeruginosa.......Page 280 Adenovirus.......Page 281 Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV).......Page 282 Hantaviruses.......Page 283 Avian Flu (H5N1).......Page 284 Changing Spectrum of HIV Infections: 30 Years Later......Page 285 Primary Tuberculosis......Page 286 Reactivation and Reinfection Tuberculosis......Page 287 Aspergillus Infection.......Page 288 Candidiasis.......Page 289 Cryptococcosis.......Page 290 Paracoccidioidomycosis (South American Blastomycosis).......Page 291 Dirofilariasis......Page 292 Further Reading......Page 293 Online-only References......Page 294 Infectious Tracheobronchitis......Page 296 Primary Malignant Neoplasms......Page 299 ANCA-Associated Granulomatous Vasculitis......Page 301 Inflammatory Bowel Disease......Page 302 Tracheobronchial Fistula and Dehiscence......Page 304 Radiographic Findings......Page 308 CT Findings......Page 309 Cystic Fibrosis......Page 312 Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA)......Page 313 Dyskinetic Cilia Syndrome......Page 314 Pathological Features......Page 315 Radiological Findings......Page 316 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)......Page 317 Radiographic Findings......Page 318 Small Airway Disease......Page 320 Panlobular or Panacinar Emphysema (PLE).......Page 321 Emphysema Associated with Interstitial Pneumonias.......Page 322 CT Quantitative Analysis of Extent of Disease......Page 323 CT Findings......Page 324 Further Reading......Page 325 Online-only References......Page 327 Direct Signs of Volume Loss......Page 329 Indirect Signs of Volume Loss......Page 330 Ancillary Features of Lobar Collapse......Page 332 Technique......Page 333 Utility......Page 334 Other Imaging Techniques in Lobar Collapse......Page 335 Right Upper Lobe Collapse......Page 336 Right Middle Lobe Collapse......Page 338 Right and Left Lower Lobe Collapse......Page 339 Combinations of Lobar Collapse......Page 341 Further Reading......Page 343 Online-only References......Page 344 Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR)......Page 345 Chest Radiographic Screening......Page 346 CT Screening......Page 347 The Future of Screening......Page 348 Nodule Contour......Page 349 Ground-Glass Nodules......Page 350 Nodule Enhancement......Page 351 Tissue Sampling......Page 352 Lung Cancer Staging—the 7Th Edition of the TNM Staging System for Lung Cancer......Page 353 N Descriptors......Page 354 Bronchopulmonary Carcinoid Tumour......Page 355 Imaging Features of Bronchogenic Carcinoma......Page 357 Calcification......Page 358 Central Tumours......Page 359 Collapse/Consolidation in Association with Central Tumours......Page 360 Mediastinal Invasion......Page 361 Chest Wall Invasion......Page 362 Pulmonary Sarcoma and Other Primary Malignant Neoplasms......Page 365 Hamartoma......Page 366 Squamous Papillomas......Page 367 Other Findings in Pulmonary Lymphoma......Page 368 Metastases......Page 370 Lymphangitic Carcinomatosis......Page 371 Further Reading......Page 372 Online-only References......Page 373 Reticular Pattern......Page 376 Usual Interstitial Pneumonia/Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis......Page 377 Non-Specific Interstitial Pneumonia......Page 379 Respiratory Bronchiolitis–Interstitial Lung Disease and Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia......Page 380 Lymphoid Interstitial Pneumonia......Page 381 Classic HRCT Findings......Page 382 High-Resolution Computed Tomography Features......Page 383 Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis......Page 384 Lymphangioleiomyomatosis......Page 386 Rheumatoid Disease......Page 387 Sjögren’s Syndrome......Page 388 Polymyositis/Dermatomyositis......Page 389 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus......Page 390 Diffuse Alveolar Damage......Page 391 Eosinophilic Pneumonia......Page 393 Silicosis/Coal Worker’s Pneumoconiosis......Page 394 Diffuse Pleural Thickening......Page 395 Asbestosis......Page 396 Reviews/Papers......Page 397 Online-only References......Page 398 Introduction......Page 401 Diagnostic Approach......Page 402 Acute Traumatic Aortic Injury (ATAI)......Page 403 Pleura......Page 405 Chest Wall......Page 407 Diaphragm......Page 409 Introduction......Page 410 Aspiration......Page 411 Pulmonary Embolism......Page 412 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)......Page 413 Intravascular......Page 415 Post-Pneumonectomy......Page 416 Early Graft Dysfunction.......Page 418 Obliterative Bronchiolitis.......Page 419 Lung Volume Reduction Surgery......Page 420 Further Reading......Page 421 Online-only References......Page 422 Anatomical Considerations......Page 424 Radiological Signs of Airspace Disease......Page 425 Pulmonary Oedema......Page 427 Interstitial Oedema......Page 428 Alveolar Oedema......Page 429 Diffuse Pulmonary Haemorrhage......Page 430 Wegener’s Granulomatosis (ANCA-Associated Granulomatous Vasculitis)......Page 433 Organising Pneumonia......Page 434 Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia......Page 436 Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis......Page 437 Reviews/Papers......Page 438 Online-only References......Page 439 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance......Page 441 Cardiac Axis Imaging Planes......Page 442 Normal Anatomy on CMR Images......Page 444 Computed Tomography Imaging Techniques......Page 447 Coronary Arteries by CT......Page 449 Valves......Page 450 Echocardiography......Page 456 Valves......Page 461 Acknowledgement......Page 463 Echo......Page 464 Online-only References......Page 465 Clinical Presentation......Page 466 Step 1—Atrial Situs......Page 467 Physiological and Functional Assessment......Page 468 Computed Tomography......Page 469 Diagnostic Features......Page 470 Pulmonary Venous Congestion and Oedema.......Page 471 Systemic-to-Pulmonary Collateral Vessels.......Page 472 Atrial Septal Defects......Page 473 Atrioventricular Septal Defects......Page 475 Patent Ductus Arteriosus......Page 476 Interrupted Aortic Arch......Page 477 Key Imaging Goals......Page 478 Key Imaging Goals......Page 479 Anomalous Coronary Arteries......Page 480 Tetralogy of Fallot......Page 481 Key Imaging Goals......Page 483 Pulmonary Atresia......Page 484 Double Outlet Right Ventricle......Page 485 Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Drainage......Page 486 Systemic-to-Pulmonary Artery Shunt......Page 487 Key Imaging Goals Following Stage 1 (Pre-BCPC)......Page 488 Further reading......Page 489 Online-only References......Page 490 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 491 Hypertrophic Pattern......Page 492 Dilated Phenotype......Page 494 Restrictive Phenotype......Page 500 Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy......Page 501 Unclassified Cardiomyopathy......Page 505 Myocarditis......Page 507 Mitral Valve Disease......Page 509 Functional Mitral Regurgitation......Page 510 Mitral Stenosis......Page 512 Tricuspid Valve Disease......Page 513 Aortic Stenosis......Page 514 Aortic Regurgitation......Page 516 Infective Endocarditis......Page 519 Valve Regurgitation......Page 522 Tumours of the Heart......Page 523 Metastasis......Page 524 Cardiac Myxoma......Page 525 Lipomas......Page 529 Fibroma......Page 531 Haemangioma......Page 532 Sarcomas......Page 533 Sarcomas with Myofibroblastic Differentiation.......Page 534 Anatomy......Page 535 Pericardial Defects......Page 537 Pericardial Effusion......Page 538 Constrictive Pericarditis......Page 541 Further Reading......Page 544 Online-only References......Page 545 Pathophysiology of Ischaemic Heart Disease......Page 548 Coronary Artery Imaging......Page 550 Functional Imaging......Page 554 Stress Imaging......Page 559 Myocardial Infarct Imaging......Page 563 Myocardial Viability Imaging......Page 568 Imaging of Complications Related to Ischaemic Heart Disease......Page 573 Prognosis Assessment in Ischaemic Heart Disease......Page 575 Differential Diagnosis in Ischaemic Heart Disease......Page 576 Further Reading......Page 577 Online-only References......Page 578 Pulmonary Arteries......Page 581 Pulmonary Circulation Physiology......Page 582 Vascular Redistribution (Grade 1)......Page 583 Alveolar Oedema (Grade 3)......Page 584 Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension......Page 586 Vascular Signs......Page 589 Cardiac Signs......Page 590 Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 591 Clinical (Pre-Test) Probability Estimate and D-Dimer Testing......Page 593 Transthoracic or Transoesophageal Ultrasound (Echocardiography)......Page 594 Ventilation–Perfusion Scintigraphy......Page 595 CT Pulmonary Angiography......Page 596 CTPA Protocol.......Page 597 CTPA Assessment.......Page 598 MR......Page 599 Chronic Pulmonary Thromboembolism......Page 601 Further Reading......Page 602 Online-only References......Page 603 Diagnostic Aspects......Page 605 Aortic Dissection......Page 607 Imaging......Page 608 Intramural Haematoma......Page 612 Penetrating Atherosclerotic Ulcer (PAU)......Page 615 Traumatic Aortic Injury (TAI)......Page 616 Imaging......Page 617 Aortic Aneurysms......Page 620 Thoracic Aneurysms......Page 621 Inflammatory Aneurysms......Page 622 Preoperative Evaluation of Acute Aortic Syndromes......Page 624 Impending Aortic Rupture......Page 625 Visceral Malperfusion......Page 626 Preoperative or Pre-Interventional Evaluation......Page 627 Traumatic Aortic Injury (TAI)......Page 628 Type B Dissection.......Page 629 Mid-Aortic Syndrome......Page 632 Aortic Occlusive Disease......Page 634 Vascular Rings......Page 635 Right Aortic Arch with Aberrant Left Subclavian Artery and Left Ligamentum Arteriosum (Fig. 24-49).......Page 637 Imaging......Page 638 Coarctation of the Aorta......Page 639 Management......Page 641 Further Reading......Page 642 Online-only References......Page 643 The Plain Abdominal Radiograph......Page 645 Pneumoperitoneum......Page 646 Gas in Bowel Wall......Page 647 Gas in Retroperitoneum......Page 648 Distinction between Small- and Large-Bowel Dilatation......Page 649 Small-Bowel Dilatation......Page 650 Large-Bowel Obstruction......Page 653 Small-Bowel Ischaemia......Page 654 Pseudomembranous Colitis......Page 655 Acute Abdominal Inflammatory Conditions......Page 656 Ultrasound in Appendicitis......Page 657 Computed Tomography in Appendicitis......Page 658 Imaging the Abdomen with CT: Radiation Issues......Page 659 CT Dose Reduction in Clinical Practice......Page 660 Further Reading......Page 661 Online-only References......Page 662 Examination......Page 663 Ultrasound......Page 664 Endoscopy......Page 665 Radionuclide Radiology Including PET-CT......Page 666 Oesophageal Cancer......Page 667 CT for Oesophageal Cancer......Page 668 EUS for Oesophageal Cancer......Page 670 Benign Lesions......Page 671 Malignant Lesions......Page 672 Hiatus Hernia......Page 674 Other Varieties of Oesophagitis......Page 675 Achalasia......Page 676 Systemic Disorders......Page 677 Dysphagia Aortica......Page 678 Further reading......Page 679 Online-only References......Page 680 Fluoroscopy......Page 681 Multidetector Computed Tomography (MDCT)......Page 683 FDG-PET and FDG-PET-CT......Page 684 Helicobacter pylori and Diseases of the Stomach......Page 685 Gastric Ulcer......Page 686 Gastric Erosions......Page 688 Gastritis......Page 689 Crohn’s and Other Granulomatous Diseases......Page 690 Ménétrier’s Disease......Page 691 Corrosive Ingestion......Page 692 Mucosal Polyps......Page 693 Gastric Carcinoma......Page 694 Early Gastric Cancer......Page 695 Staging of Gastric Cancer......Page 696 Carcinoid......Page 698 Hiatus Hernia......Page 699 Gastric Pneumatosis......Page 700 Diverticula......Page 701 Gastric Distention......Page 702 Bariatric Surgery for Obesity......Page 703 Complications of Gastric Surgery......Page 704 Further Reading......Page 706 Online-only References......Page 707 Anatomy and Normal Appearances......Page 710 Complications of Peptic Ulceration......Page 711 Primary Carcinoma......Page 712 Secondary Involvement......Page 713 Tuberculosis......Page 714 Radiological Investigation......Page 715 Computed Tomography......Page 716 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 717 Crohn’s Disease......Page 718 Radiological Appearances......Page 719 Malignant Neoplasms......Page 722 Adenocarcinoma......Page 723 Lymphoma......Page 724 Benign Neoplasms......Page 725 Mesenteric Adenitis......Page 726 Tuberculosis......Page 727 Mechanical Small Intestinal Obstruction......Page 728 Acute Mesenteric Ischaemia......Page 730 Blind Loops......Page 731 Whipple’s Disease......Page 732 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome......Page 733 Further Reading......Page 734 Online-only References......Page 735 Anatomy......Page 737 Radiological Investigation......Page 738 Polyps......Page 739 Peutz–Jeghers Syndrome.......Page 741 CT Colonography.......Page 742 Colorectal Cancer......Page 744 Colon Cancer......Page 745 Rectal Cancer......Page 746 Anal Cancer......Page 747 Secondary Cancers......Page 748 Diverticulitis......Page 749 Imaging Features of Colitis......Page 751 Inflammatory Bowel Disease......Page 752 Carcinoma in Colitis......Page 753 Radiation Colitis......Page 754 Tuberculosis......Page 755 Acute Fulminant Colitis......Page 756 Large-Bowel Strictures......Page 757 Pneumatosis Coli......Page 758 Endometriosis......Page 759 Functional Disorders of the Anorectum......Page 760 Further Reading......Page 762 Online-only References......Page 763 Supramesocolic Space......Page 764 The Mesenteries......Page 765 The Omentum......Page 766 Intraperitoneal Air......Page 767 Mesenteric Cysts......Page 768 Hydatid Disease......Page 769 Mesenteric Panniculitis–Sclerosing Mesenteritis......Page 770 Non-inflammatory Oedema......Page 772 Neoplastic Diseases of Peritoneum......Page 773 Intraperitoneal Seeding and Peritoneal Carcinomatosis......Page 774 Primary Neoplasms......Page 776 Neoplastic Diseases of Mesentery......Page 777 Secondary Neoplasms......Page 778 Intraperitoneal Tumour Dissemination.......Page 779 Carcinoid.......Page 780 Further reading......Page 781 Online-only References......Page 782 Subdivisions (Fig. 31-2)......Page 783 Vascular Anatomy Variation (Fig. 31-5)......Page 784 Normal (Fig. 31-6)......Page 785 Technique (Fig. 31-9)......Page 786 Techniques (Fig. 31-11)......Page 787 Angiography......Page 789 Cirrhosis......Page 791 Haemochromatosis and Iron Overload......Page 793 Malignant Diffuse Disease......Page 794 Portal Vein Gas......Page 795 Cysts......Page 796 Abscess......Page 798 Haemangioma......Page 799 Focal Nodular Hyperplasia......Page 801 Hepatic Adenoma......Page 802 Focal Confluent Fibrosis......Page 805 Hepatocellular Carcinoma......Page 806 Fibrolamellar Carcinoma (FLC) (Fig. 31-53)......Page 809 Angiosarcoma (Fig. 31-55)......Page 810 Metastases......Page 812 Budd–Chiari Syndrome......Page 814 Portal Vein Thrombosis......Page 817 Arterioportal Shunts......Page 819 Hepatic Trauma......Page 820 Living Donor Assessment......Page 822 Graft Failure......Page 823 Devices......Page 824 Practical Procedural Issues......Page 826 Anatomy......Page 827 Infections (Fig. 31-77)......Page 828 Benign Lesions......Page 830 Angiosarcoma (Fig. 31-83)......Page 831 Lymphoma (Fig. 31-84)......Page 832 Portal Hypertension/Splenic Vein Thrombosis......Page 834 Amyloidosis......Page 835 Gaucher’s Disease......Page 836 Further Reading......Page 837 Online-only References......Page 838 Biliary Anatomy......Page 840 Computed Tomographic Cholangiography......Page 842 T-Tube Cholangiography......Page 843 Sludge......Page 844 Milk of Calcium Bile......Page 845 Gangrenous Cholecystitis......Page 846 Emphysematous Cholecystitis......Page 847 Acalculous Cholecystitis......Page 848 Gallbladder Polyps......Page 849 Gallbladder Metastases and Lymphoma......Page 851 Role of Radiology in Investigation of Jaundice......Page 852 Cholangiography......Page 854 Postoperative Strictures......Page 855 Mirizzi’s Syndrome......Page 856 HIV Cholangiopathy......Page 857 Recurrent Pyogenic Cholangitis......Page 858 Biliary Leaks and Bile Duct Injuries......Page 859 Cholangiocarcinoma......Page 860 Pancreatic and Ampullary Tumours......Page 862 Percutaneous Cholecystostomy......Page 863 Benign Disease......Page 864 Further Reading......Page 865 Online-only References......Page 866 Pancreas Divisum......Page 868 Pancreatic Agenesis, Hypoplasia and Ectopic Pancreas......Page 869 Acute Pancreatitis......Page 871 Imaging in Acute Pancreatitis......Page 872 Interstitial Oedematous Pancreatitis......Page 873 Pancreatic and Peripancreatic Collections......Page 874 Walled-Off Necrosis (WON)......Page 875 Vascular Complications......Page 876 Gastrointestinal Involvement......Page 877 Chronic Pancreatitis......Page 878 Autoimmune Pancreatitis......Page 880 Imaging Techniques......Page 881 Imaging Appearances......Page 882 Distant Metastases......Page 884 Functioning Tumours......Page 886 Cystic Masses......Page 887 What To Do With Small Incidental Cystic Lesions......Page 889 Osler–Weber–Rendu Disease......Page 891 Trauma......Page 892 Biopsy of Pancreatic Lesions......Page 893 Drainage of Pancreatic/Peripancreatic Fluid Collections......Page 894 Further Reading......Page 896 Online-only References......Page 897 Renal Tract Calcifications......Page 899 Imaging of Renal and Ureteric Tumours......Page 900 Risk Stratification of Patients with Haematuria for Triage to Computed Tomography......Page 902 Imaging Features of Urothelial Tumours on Computed Tomography......Page 903 Loin Pain......Page 904 MR Urography......Page 905 Renal Failure......Page 906 Renovascular Disease......Page 907 Acute Pyelonephritis......Page 908 Computed Tomography.......Page 909 Magnetic Resonance Imaging.......Page 910 Renal Scintigraphy.......Page 911 Imaging of Renal and Perirenal Abscess......Page 913 Imaging of Emphysematous Pyelonephritis......Page 914 Imaging of XGP......Page 916 Imaging of Chronic Pyelonephritis......Page 917 Renal Tuberculosis......Page 918 Cystitis......Page 919 Imaging of Cystitis......Page 922 Chronic Prostatitis......Page 923 Imaging of Chronic Prostatitis.......Page 925 Online-only References......Page 926 Embryology......Page 929 Normal Urinary Tract Anatomy......Page 930 Renal......Page 931 Ureter and Pelvis......Page 934 Bladder and Urethra......Page 936 Techniques......Page 939 Intravenous Urography (IVU)/Excretory Urography......Page 941 Retrograde Urethrography and Voiding Cystourethrogram......Page 942 Ultrasound......Page 943 Nuclear Medicine......Page 944 CT......Page 945 MRI......Page 947 IVU......Page 948 Conclusion......Page 949 Further Reading......Page 950 Online-only References......Page 951 MRI......Page 954 Serous Renal Cyst......Page 955 ‘Complicated Cysts’......Page 956 Hydatid (Echinococcal) Cysts of the Kidney......Page 957 Haematomas......Page 958 Angiomyolipomas......Page 959 Renal Cell Carcinoma.......Page 960 Staging of Renal Cancer.......Page 962 Lymphoma and Leukaemia.......Page 964 Transitional Cell Carcinoma (see Figs. 36-25 and 36-26).......Page 965 Further Reading......Page 966 Online-only References......Page 967 Technique of Examination......Page 968 Non-vascular Complications......Page 970 Urinoma......Page 971 Ureteric Strictures......Page 972 Renal Artery Stenosis......Page 973 Cancer and Transplant......Page 974 Use of Isotope Studies and Renal Transplant......Page 975 Radiological Evaluation of Potential Donor Kidneys......Page 977 Further Reading......Page 978 Online-only References......Page 979 Risk Factors......Page 980 Management......Page 981 Optimisation of CT Urography Technique......Page 982 Diagnostic Accuracy of CT Urography for UTUC......Page 983 Diagnostic Imaging Strategies for UTUC......Page 984 Problems and Solutions......Page 985 By Histology......Page 986 Technique of CT Urography and MR Urography......Page 987 CT and MR Urographic Appearance of Bladder Cancers......Page 988 Sensitivity and Specificity of CT and MR Urography in Detecting Bladder Cancers......Page 991 Use of Positron Emission Tomography for Detecting and Evaluating Bladder Cancers......Page 992 Imaging for Local Staging of Bladder Cancer......Page 993 Imaging for Detection of Regional and Distant Metastatic Disease......Page 994 Upper Tract Evaluation......Page 995 Treatment and Follow-Up......Page 997 Imaging of Patients Following Neoadjuvant Chemoradiation and before Surgery......Page 998 Use of Imaging to Identify Tumour Response to Chemotherapy......Page 999 Adenocarcinomas......Page 1000 Other Bladder Malignancies......Page 1001 Benign Bladder Lesions......Page 1002 Bladder Cancer......Page 1005 Online-only References......Page 1006 Anatomy......Page 1009 Histology......Page 1010 T2-Weighted MR Imaging......Page 1011 DCE MR Imaging......Page 1013 DWI MR Imaging......Page 1014 Local Staging......Page 1015 1.5 Versus 3.0......Page 1017 Recurrence......Page 1018 Protocols......Page 1019 Staging of PCa......Page 1020 Further Reading......Page 1021 Online-only References......Page 1022 Anatomy......Page 1025 Malignant Testicular Pathology......Page 1026 Staging Testicular Malignancy......Page 1027 Non-Malignant Focal Testicular Lesions......Page 1028 Testicular Microlithiasis......Page 1029 Hypoechoic Lesions......Page 1030 Testicular Atrophy......Page 1032 Cryptorchidism......Page 1033 Testicular Torsion......Page 1034 Erectile Failure......Page 1035 Evaluation of the Soft Tissues of the Penis......Page 1036 Further Reading......Page 1037 Online-only References......Page 1038 Computed Tomography......Page 1040 Detection, Diagnosis and Staging......Page 1042 Computed Tomography......Page 1043 Stage II.......Page 1044 Carcinoma of the Cervix......Page 1045 Computed Tomography......Page 1046 Stage I.......Page 1047 Stages III and IV.......Page 1048 Ovarian Carcinoma......Page 1049 Computed Tomography......Page 1050 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 1051 Positron Emission Tomography/ Computed Tomography......Page 1052 Conclusion..... VOLUME 1 -- SECTION ONE Imaging techniques and general issues -- 1. RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES -- 2. CONTRAST MEDIA -- 3. ANGIOGRAPHY: PRINCIPLES, TECHNIQUES AND COMPLICATIONS -- 4. ULTRASOUND -- 5. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY -- 6. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING -- 7. RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING: NUCLEAR MEDICINE (NM) INCLUDING POSITRON EMISSION IMAGING (PET) -- 8. FUNCTIONAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR IMAGING -- 9. RADIATION ISSUES RADIATION PROTECTION AND PATIENT DOSES IN DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING -- 10. PICTURE ARCHIVING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (PACS) -- 11. CLINICAL GOVERNANCE - INCLUDING AUDIT, MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS, ETC. -- SECTION TWO The chest and cardiovascular system -- 11. TECHNIQUES AND ANATOMY -- 12. THE NORMAL CHEST -- 13. THE CHEST WALL, PLEURA AND DIAPHRAGM -- 14. THE MEDIASTINUM INCLUDING THE PERICARDIUM -- 15. PULMONARY INFECTION IN ADULTS -- 16. LARGE AIRWAY DISEASE AND CHRONIC AIRFLOW OBSTRUCTION -- 17. PULMONARY LOBAR COLLAPSE: ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS -- 18. PULMONARY NEOPLASMS -- 19. INTERSTITIAL AND OCCUPATIONAL LUNG DISEASE -- 20. TRAUMA AND INTENSIVE CARE RADIOLOGY -- 21. AIR-SPACE DISEASES -- 22. CARDIAC TECHNIQUES AND ANATOMY -- 23. CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE -- 24. ACQUIRED VALVULAR HEART DISEASE AND POSTOPERATIVE FEATURES -- 25. ISCHAEMIC HEART DISEASE -- 26. THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION AND PULMONARY THROMBOEMBOLISM -- 27. THE AORTA -- 28. THE PERIPHERAL VASCULAR SYSTEM -- SECTION THREE Gastrointestinal imaging -- 29. ANATOMY AND TECHNIQUES INCLUDING THE PLAIN ABDOMINAL RADIOGRAPH -- 30. THE OESOPHAGUS -- 31. THE STOMACH -- 32. THE SMALL INTESTINE INCLUDING THE DUODENUM -- 33. THE LARGE BOWEL -- 34. IMAGING OF THE PERITONEUM, MESENTERY AND OMENTUM -- 35. THE LIVER, INCLUDING TRANSPLANTATION ISSUES -- 36. THE BILIARY SYSTEM -- 37. THE PANCREAS -- VOLUME 2 -- SECTION FOUR The genitourinary tract -- 38. TECHNIQUES AND ANATOMY -- 39. RENAL PARENCHYMAL DISEASE INCLUDING RENAL FAILURE, RENOVASCULAR DISEASE AND TRANSPLANTATION -- 40. RENAL MASSES -- 41. UPPER URI