GPSA Engineering Data Book (SI)

M01 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf Section 1 — General Information GPA TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES Technical Committee Section A, Facilities Design and Optimization Section B, Analysis Section C, Specifications Section F, Technical Data Development Section H, Product Measurement and Handling Section L, Computer Technology and Data Distribu-tion Section M, Operations and Maintenance GPSA TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES Editorial Review Board Definitions of Words and Terms Used in the Gas Processing Industry Conversion Factors Other useful relationships GPA Publications Standards and Bulletins Specifications Analytical Methods Measurement Standards Sampling Methods Miscellaneous Standards GPA Research Reports GPA TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION FIGURES FIG. 1-1: Typical Components of Industry Streams FIG. 1-2: Conversion Factor Tables FIG. 1-3: A.P.I. and Baumé Gravity Tables and Weight Factors FIG. 1-4: Values of the Gas Constant R in PV = nRT FIG. 1-5: Commercial Base Pressure Conversion Factors FIG. 1-6: Pressure Equivalents FIG. 1-7: Viscosity Relationships M02 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf Section 2 — Product Specifications LP-GAS SPECIFICATION PARAMETERS Vapor Pressure Moisture Content Sulfur Content Volatile Residue Non-volatile Residue Non-Specification Contaminants Odorization REFERENCES FIGURES FIG. 2-1: GPA Liquefied Petroleum Gas Specifications FIG. 2-2: GPA Natural Gasoline Specifications and Test Methods FIG. 2-3: Representative Quality Criteria for Ethane Streams FIG. 2-4: Example Pipeline Quality Natural Gas FIG. 2-5: Specifications for Liquefied Petroleum Gases FIG. 2-6: Maximum Water Content of Dry Commercial Liquid Propane FIG. 2-7: Concentration H2S vs. Copper Strip Produced M03 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 3 — Measurement FLOW CALCULATION GUIDE GAS MEASUREMENT Orifice-Meter Measurement Orifice Flanges Single Chamber Orifice Fitting Senior Orifice Fitting Orifice Plates Meter Tubes Length of Pipe Preceding and Following an Orifice Straightening Vanes Gas Orifice Calculations Orifice Sizing Orifice Flow Rate Orifice Well Test Pipe (Tube) Rupture – Gas LIQUID MEASUREMENT Orifice Meters Orifice Sizing Orifice Flow Rate Turbine Meters Positive Displacement Meters Meter Selection and Performance Meter Proving Meter Proving Systems Meter Proving Reports Mass Measurement Mass Flow Meters Densitometers STEAM MEASUREMENT MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT DEVICES Pitot Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Venturis Flow Nozzles Auxiliary Equipment and Common Terms Differential Measuring Devices Flow Recorders "Roots" or "Roots of Flow" Gas Sampling Liquid Sampling REFERENCES FIGURES FIG. 3-1: Nomenclature FIG. 3-2: Flow Calculation Guide FIG. 3-3: Flow Calculation Guide Equations FIG. 3-4: Orifice Plate Holders FIG. 3-5: Orifice Plate Dimensions FIG. 3-6: Practical Tolerance for Orifice Diameters (mm) FIG. 3-7: Maximum Pipe Diameter Tolerance FIG. 3-8: Greater Than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in the Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube FIG. 3-9: Less Than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube FIG. 3-10: Two Ells Not in Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube FIG. 3-11: Reducer or Expander Upstream of Meter Tube FIG. 3-12: Partly Closed Valve Upstream of Meter Tube FIG. 3-13: Minimum Meter Tube Lengths in Terms of Pipe Diameters and Beta (b) Ratio – Use For All Pipe Sizes FIG. 3-14: Flow Straightening Vanes FIG. 3-15: Typical Test Set-Up for Measuring Gas from a Separator Vent FIG. 3-16: Flange Taps, Basic Orifice Factors, Fb - m 3 /h FIG. 3-17: "b" Values for Reynolds Number Factor, Fr – Flange Taps FIG. 3-18: Expansion Factors – Flange Taps, Y2 (static downstream) FIG. 3-19: Steam Coefficient Factors, Saturated Steam FIG. 3-20: Steam Coefficient Factors, Superheated Steam FIG. 3-21: Liquid Compressibility, F; Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Mixtures FIG. 3-22: Volume Correction Factors for Temperature, Ctl; Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Mixtures FIG. 3-23: Typical Turbine Meter Components FIG. 3-24: Sizing Guide for Typical Turbine Meters FIG. 3-25: Example Turbine Meter Installation FIG. 3-26: Example Positive Displacement Meter FIG. 3-27: Meter Proving Report FIG. 3-28: Example Bidirectional Pipe Prover FIG. 3-29: Small Volume Prover FIG. 3-30: Multiple Meter Installation FIG. 3-31: Temperature Correction Factors for Mild Steel, Cts FIG. 3-32: Temperature Correction Factors for Stainless Steel, Cts FIG. 3-33: Pressure Correction Factors for Steel, Cps FIG. 3-34: Example Calculation Converting Stream Mass to Component m 3 FIG. 3-35: Vibrating Tube Densitometer FIG. 3-36: Buoyant Force Densitometer FIG. 3-37: Basic Operating Principle—Multiple Averaging Pitot FIG. 3-38: Vortex Shedding Phenomenon FIG. 3-39: Vortex Flowmeter Components FIG. 3-40: Venturi Meter FIG. 3-41: Flow Nozzle Assembly FIG. 3-42: Gas Sampler FIG. 3-43: Liquid Sampler M04 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 4 — Instrumentation GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS Type Selection Identification PNEUMATIC POWER SUPPLIES ELECTRONIC POWER SUPPLIES Power Outages and Interruptions Power Supply Specifications Uninterruptible Power Supplies SENSING DEVICES Pressure Sensors Manometer Bourdon tubes Bellows Diaphragm Electrical Pressure Transducers Level Sensors Gauge glass Chain and tape float gauges Lever and shaft float gauges Displacer level measuring device Head-pressure level gauges Electrical type level gauges and switches Capacitance probes Other methods Temperature Sensors Thermocouples Resistance thermometers Filled-system thermometers Glass stem thermometers Bimetallic thermometers Flow Sensors Variable head flow meters Variable area flow meters Turbine meters Positive displacement meters Other flowmeters SIGNAL TRANSMITTERS Pneumatic Transmitters Electronic Transmitters Connection Methods Two-wire transmitters Three-wire transmitters Four-wire transmitters Signal Converters Pneumatic-to-electronic (P/I) Electronic-to-pneumatic (I/P) Isolators Electric signal converters Frequency converters RECORDERS AND INDICATORS Recorders Indicators Mechanical type Electronic analog type Digital type CONTROL CONCEPTS Control Loops Open loop Closed loop Feedback control Feedforward control CONTROL MODES AND CONTROLLERS Two-Position (on-off) Controllers Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control Modes Direct and Reverse Acting Controllers Proportional Mode (P) Offset Proportional Plus Integral Mode (PI) Proportional Plus Derivative Mode (PD) Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Mode (PID) Controller Tuning Ziegler-Nichols Method Control Mode Considerations CONTROL VALVES Control-Valve Bodies Control-Valve Actuators Discussion of Flow Characteristics and Valve Selection FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL VALVE SIZING AND NOISE PREDICTION Gas Service Critical Pressure Drop Sizing Calculation Procedure Liquid Service Cavitation Flashing Sizing Information INSTALLATION, TROUBLESHOOTING, AND CALIBRATION Installation and Troubleshooting Failed Systems Poorly Commissioned Systems Poor Performance Calibration Pressure transmitters Differential pressure transmitters Temperature transmitters COMPUTER SYSTEMS Analog Computers Digital Computers Programmable logic controllers (PLC) Microcomputers Minicomputers Process input/output equipment DIGITAL FIRST-LEVEL CONTROL Individual controllers Direct digital controllers (DDC) Distributed control systems (DCS) ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS Cyclic Analyzers Continuous Analyzers REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 4-1: Nomenclature FIG. 4-2: Instrumentation Symbols FIG. 4-3: Instrument Type Features FIG. 4-4: Typical Reclosure Gear Operation for Power Outages of Commercial Utilities FIG. 4-5: Types of Manometers FIG. 4-6: Types of Bourdon Tubes FIG. 4-7: Types of Bellows FIG. 4-8: Diaphragm Pressure Elements FIG. 4-9: Flat Glass Gauge Glasses FIG. 4-10: Chain and Tape Float Gauge FIG. 4-11: Lever and Shaft Float Gauge FIG. 4-12: Displacer Level Measuring Device FIG. 4-13: Head Pressure Level Gauges FIG. 4-14: Electrical Level Gauges/Switches FIG. 4-15: Properties of Thermocouples FIG. 4-16: Rotameter FIG. 4-17: Connection Methods FIG. 4-18: Control Concepts FIG. 4-19: Responses of Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control Modes to Various Process Inputs and Disturbances FIG. 4-20: Control Mode Comparisons FIG. 4-21: Typical Response Curve FIG. 4-22: Typical Responses Obtained When Determining Ultimate Gain and Ultimate Period FIG. 4-23: Ziegler-Nichols Settings for 1/4 Decay Response FIG. 4-24: Typical Controller Settings FIG. 4-25: Control Mode vs. Application FIG. 4-26: Relationship of Major Components FIG. 4-27: Push-Down-to-Close Valve Body Assembly FIG. 4-28: Typical Spring-and-Diaphragm Actuator Assemblies FIG. 4-29: Example Flow Characteristic Curves FIG. 4-30: Valve Sizing Equations FIG. 4-31: Numerical Constants for Gas and Vapor Flow Equations FIG. 4-32: Typical Cv, Xc and FL Values for Valves FIG. 4-33: Critical Pressure Ratios for All Liquids FIG. 4-34: Critical Pressure of Various Liquids FIG. 4-35: Liquid Valve Sizing Equations FIG. 4-36: Numerical Constants for Liquid Flow Equations FIG. 4-37: Common Measurement Problems FIG. 4-38: Square Root Input/Output Relationship FIG. 4-39: Typical Process Chromatograph System FIG. 4-40: Continuous Analysis Instruments M05 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 5 — Relief Systems RELIEF DEVICE DESIGN Blocked Discharge Fire Exposure Tube Rupture Control Valve Failure Thermal Expansion Utility Failure RELIEVING DEVICES Conventional Relief Valves Balanced Relief Valves Pilot Operated Relief Valves Resilient Seat Relief Valves Rupture Disk SIZING OF RELIEF DEVICES Sizing for Gas or Vapor Relief Critical Flow Subcritical Flow Sizing for Steam Relief Sizing for Liquid Relief Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow Sizing for Thermal Relief Sizing for Mixed Phase Relief Sizing for Fire RELIEF VALVE INSTALLATION Inlet Piping Discharge Piping Reactive Force Rapid Cycling Resonant Chatter Seat Leakage of Relief Valves RELIEF SYSTEM PIPING DESIGN Grouping of Systems Load Determination Back Pressure Consideration Sizing Methods KNOCKOUT DRUMS Sizing FLARE SYSTEMS Types Pipe Flares Smokeless Flares Fired or Endothermic Flares Thermal Radiation Smokeless Operation Pilots and Ignition Seals Location and Regulations SPECIAL RELIEF SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS Equipment Fired Heaters Pumps Vessels and Tanks Compressors Low Temperature Flaring Applicable Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices ASME Codes ANSI Codes API Publications NFPA Publications OSHA Publications CGA (Compressed Gas Association) Publications REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 5-1: Nomenclature FIG. 5-2: Characteristics of Safety Relief Valves for Vessel Protection FIG. 5-3: Conventional Safety-Relief Valve FIG. 5-4: Balanced Safety-Relief Valve FIG. 5-5: Pilot Operated Relief Valve FIG. 5-6: O-Ring Seals; Conventional and Bellow Valves FIG. 5-7: Relief Valve Designations FIG. 5-8: Values of Coefficient C1 FIG. 5-9: Values of C1 for Gases FIG. 5-10: Constant Back Pressure Sizing Factor, Kb, for Conventional Safety-Relief Valves (Vapors and Gases Only) FIG. 5-11: Variable or Constant Back-Pressure Sizing Factor, Kb, for Balanced Bellows Safety-Relief Valves (Vapors and Gases) FIG. 5-12: Values of F2 for Subcritical Flow FIG. 5-13: Superheat Correction Factors for Safety Valves in Steam Service FIG. 5-14: Variable or Constant Back-Pressure Sizing Factor Kw for 25 Percent Overpressure on Balanced Bellows Safety-Relief ... FIG. 5-15: Capacity Correction Factor Due to Viscosity FIG. 5-16: Environmental Factors FIG. 5-17: Relief-Valve Factors for Noninsulated Vessels in Gas Service Exposed to Open Fires FIG. 5-18: Typical Effects of Variable Back Pressure on Capacity of Conventional Safety-Relief Valves FIG. 5-19: Determination of Drag Coefficient FIG. 5-20: Emissivity Values for Flared Gases FIG. 5-21: Dimensional References for Sizing a Flare Stack M06 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 6 — Storage STORAGE CLASSIFICATION Above Ground Atmospheric Low Pressure Medium Pressure High Pressure Underground WORKING PRESSURES TYPES OF STORAGE Above Ground Spheres Spheroids Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks Fixed Roof Floating Roof Bolted Specialty Underground Solution Mined Caverns Conventional Mined Caverns Refrigerated Storage MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION Vessel/Tank Materials Metallic Non-Metallic Protective Coatings Internal Coal Tar Epoxy Resin Coatings Rubber Lining Galvanized External Insulation Types Uses Personnel Protection Process Temperature Control Condensation Conservation of Energy Refrigerated Tank Insulation Systems APPURTENANCES SITE PREPARATION AND INSTALLATION Dikes Grounding CATHODIC PROTECTION PRODUCT RECOVERY Vapor Losses Displacement Losses Vaporization Losses Liquid Equivalents of Tank Vapors General Approach Suggested Simplified Approach Vapor Recovery Systems PARTIAL VOLUMES IN STORAGE TANKS STANDARDS AND CODES REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG 6-1: Nomenclature FIG. 6-2: Storage FIG. 6-3: Storage Pressure vs. True Vapor Pressure FIG. 6-4: True Vapor Pressures vs. Temperatures for Typical LPG, Motor, and Natural Gasolines FIG. 6-5: Typical Spherical Storage Tank FIG. 6-6: Typical Noded Spheroidal Storage Tank FIG. 6-7: Horizontal-Cylindrical Type Vessel FIG. 6-8: Typical Arrangement of Internal Floating Roof Tank FIG. 6-9: Pipe Storage FIG. 6-10: Brine Displacement Cavern Operation (Solution Miined Cavern) FIG. 6-11: Pump-Out Cavern Operation (Fracture Connected Solution Mined Cavern in Bedded Salt) FIG. 6-12: Compression/Expansion Cavern Operation (Solution Mined Cavern) FIG. 6-13: General Guidelines for the Economic Storage of Pure Propane FIG. 6-14: Constants for Determining Thermal Conductivity and Unit Heat-Transfer Rate for Some Common Insulating Materials FIG. 6-15: Heat Flow Through Insulation FIG. 6-16: Summary of Specifications for Low-Temperature and Cryogenic Steels FIG. 6-17: Filling Losses from Storage Containers FIG. 6-18: Liquid Equivalent of Tank Vapor FIG. 6-19: Ambient Temperature Vapor Recovery Cycle FIG. 6-20: Volume of Cylinders FIG. 6-21: Partial Volume in Horizontal and Vertical Storage Tanks with Ellipsoidal or Hemispherical Heads FIG. 6-22: Coefficients for Partial Volumes of Horizontal Cylinders, FIG. 6-23: Table of Coefficients and Formulas for Determining Partial Volumes in Ellipsoids and Spheres FIG. 6-24: Partial Volumes of Spheres — Cubic Meters FIG. 6-25: Approximate Contents (Cubic Meters) of Rectangular Tanks Per Meter of Liquid* M07 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 7 — Separators and Filters PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION Momentum Gravity Settling Gravity Settling – Limiting Conditions Newton’s Law Stokes’ Law Coalescing SEPARATOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Parts of a Separator Separator Configurations Vertical Separators Horizontal Separators Spherical Separators GAS-LIQUID SEPARATOR DESIGN Specifying Separators Basic Design Equations Separators without Mist Extractors Separators With Wire Mesh Mist Extractors Separators with Vane Type Mist Extractors Separators with Centrifugal Elements Filter Separators General Design LIQUID-LIQUID SEPARATOR DESIGN PARTICULATE REMOVAL–FILTRATION REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 7-1: Nomenclature FIG. 7-2: Forces on Liquid Droplet in Gas Stream FIG. 7-3: Drag Coefficient of Rigid Spheres FIG. 7-4: Gravity Settling Laws and Particle Characteristics FIG. 7-5: Gas-Liquid Separators FIG. 7-6: Example Vertical Separator with Wire Mesh Mist Extractor FIG. 7-7: Example Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with Wire Mesh Mist Extractor FIG. 7-8: Example Spherical Separator FIG. 7-9: Typical K & C Factors for Sizing Woven Wire Demisters FIG. 7-10: Example Minimum Clearance — Mesh Type Mist Eliminators FIG. 7-11: Horizontal Separator with Knitted Wire Mesh Pad Mist Extractor and Lower Liquid Barrel FIG. 7-12: Example Vertical Separator with Vane Type Mist Extractor FIG. 7-13: Cross Section of Example Vane Element Mist Extractor Showing Corrugated Plates with Liquid Drainage Traps FIG. 7-14: Example Vertical Separator with Centrifugal Elements FIG. 7-15: Example Horizontal Filter-Separator FIG. 7-16: Approximate Gas Filter Capacity FIG. 7-17: Values of C* Used in Eq 7-14, 7-15 FIG. 7-18: Typical Retention Times for Liquid/Liquid Separation M08 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 8 — Fired Equipment HEAT TRANSFER Conduction Convection Natural or free convection Forced convection Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Finned Tubes Radiation Heat Losses COMBUSTION Air Requirements Heating Value Thermal Efficiency Draft Burners Gas Burner Performance Flue Gas Condensation NOx Control DIRECT FIRED HEATERS Types Cylindrical or Cabin? Vertical or Horizontal Tubes? Radiant Section Convection Section Stack Draft Insulation LHV Castable Refractory Ceramic Fiber Insulating Firebricks (Ifb) External Insulation Other Design Considerations Film temperature Snuffing Purging Sampling Flue gas temperature Process coil thermowells Draft gauges Soot blowers Controls Options to Improve the Thermal Efficiency Option I. Add Convection Surface Effects Things to consider Option II. Add Economizer for Waste Heat Recovery Waste heat options Effects Things to consider Option III. Install Air Preheat System Effects Things to consider Convection Heaters FIRETUBE HEATERS Water Bath Heaters Low Pressure Steam Heaters Hot Oil Heaters Molten Salt Heaters Direct Fired Reboilers Firetubes, Burners, Stacks Controls Troubleshooting Bath level loss Shell side corrosion Inadequate heat transfer High stack temperature Firetube failure High or low fuel gas pressure Improved Thermal Efficiency Hot Oil System HOT OIL SYSTEM WASTE HEAT RECOVERY REFERENCES FIGURES FIG. 8-1: Nomenclature FIG. 8-2: Heater Applications and Characteristics FIG. 8-3: Properties of Commercial Refractories and Insulations FIG. 8-4: Heat Transfer Constants 2 for Eq 8-4 (Natural or Free Convection) FIG. 8-5: Heat Transfer Constants for Equation 8-8 2, 3 Forced Convection FIG. 8-6: Fin Efficiency Chart FIG. 8-7: Fin Tip Temperature FIG. 8-8: Thermal Conductivity of Ferrous Materials FIG. 8-9: Normal Total Emissivity of Various Surfaces FIG. 8-10: Partial Pressure of CO2 Plus H2O FIG. 8-11: Beam Lengths for Gas Radiation FIG. 8-12: Gas Emissivity FIG. 8-13: Combination Convection and Radiation Film Coefficients for Air in Contact with Vertical Walls or Surfaces FIG. 8-14: Effect of Fuel/Air Ratio on Flue Gas Analysis for 41 283 kJ/Sm 3 Natural Gas (0.63 Gas Relative Density) ... FIG. 8-15a: Standard Cubic Meters of Dry Air Needed per Standard Cubic Meter of Hydrocarbon for Complete Combustion FIG. 8-15b: Mass of Humid Air Per Mass of Dry Air At 760 mm Hg and Percent Relative Humidity FIG. 8-16: Effect of Ambient Temperature and Barometer Pressure on Air Actually Delivered FIG. 8-17: Gross Thermal Efficiency for a Gas with HHV = 37.3 kJ/Sm 3 FIG. 8-18: Typical Enthalpy of Combustion Gases for a Dry Natural Gas Fuel and 20% Excess Dry Air FIG. 8-19: Example Cylindrical and Cabin Direct Fired Heaters FIG. 8-20: Chart to Estimate the Fraction of Total Heat Liberation That is Absorbed in the Radiant Section of a Direct Fired ... FIG. 8-21: Flue Gas Rates FIG. 8-22: Flue Gas Convection-Coefficients for Flow Across Staggered Banks of Bare Tubes FIG. 8-23: 3000 kW Regeneration Gas Heater FIG. 8-24: Natural Draft Profiles FIG. 8-25: Example Direct Fired Reboiler FIG. 8-26: Heater Alarm/Shutdown Description FIG. 8-27: Convection Heater FIG. 8-28: Water Bath Indirect Heater FIG. 8-29: Methane Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram FIG. 8-30: Typical Bath Properties for Firetube Heaters FIG. 8-31: 103 kPa (ga) Steam Bath Heater FIG. 8-32: Typical Physical Properties of Hot Oil FIG. 8-33: Salt Bath Heater FIG. 8-34: Amine Reboiler FIG. 8-35: Indirect Fired Heater FIG. 8-36: Bath Heater Alarm/Shutdown Description FIG. 8-37: Methods to Increase Firetube Heat Transfer FIG. 8-38: Example Hot Oil System M09 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 9 — Heat Exchangers FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER Heat Balances Basic Heat Transfer Relations Shell and Tube Exchangers Effective Temperature Difference Heat Exchange with Non-Linear Behavior Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Metal Resistance for Plain Tubes Fouling Resistances Film Resistances Performance Evaluation With Sensible Heat Transfer CONDENSERS REBOILERS AND VAPORIZERS The “Pool Boiling Curve” Effective Temperature Difference Hydraulic Effects Types of Reboilers Kettle Recirculating thermosyphon “Once-through” “Pump-through” Type Selection SELECTION OF EXCHANGER COMPONENTS Industry Standards Nomenclature Tube Wall Determination Shell Size and Tube Count Estimation Enhanced Surface Tubing OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS Inlet Gas Exchanger Tube Vibration Evaluating Altered Performance Hairpin Heat Exchangers Advantages Disadvantages Application Guidelines Tank Heaters Wall Mounted Coils or Panels Internal Prefabricated Tank Heaters Internal Pipe Coils Prefabricated Stab-in Tube Bundle Tank Suction Heaters Plate-Fin Exchangers BASIC CONFIGURATION Nozzles Headers Ports Distributor Fins Heat Transfer Fins Parting Sheets — The parting (separator) sheets con-tain Outside Sheets Bars Support Angles Battery Cold Box ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS APPLICATIONS HARDWARE CAPABILITIES Materials and Codes of Construction Maximum Working Temperature, Pressure, and Sizes Fins Distributor and Passage Arrangements SELECTIONS Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchanger Specifications Thermodynamic Mechanical Heat Load Curves Design Considerations for Two-Phase Flow Approximate Sizing Procedure INSTALLATION-OPERATION-MAINTENANCE Mounting Insulation Field Testing and Repair Hydrate Suppression Cleaning Plate Frame Heat Exchangers Advantages Disadvantages Applications Materials of Construction Maximum Pressure and Temperature Ratings Size Limitations Fouling Factors Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers General Design Applications REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 9-1: Nomenclature FIG. 9-2: Countercurrent Flow and Co-current Flow FIG. 9-3: LMTD Chart FIG. 9-4: LMTD Correction Factor (1 shell pass; 2 or more tube passes) FIG. 9-5: LMTD Correction Factor (2 shell passes; 4 or more tube passes) FIG. 9-6: LMTD Correction Factor (3 shell passes; 6 or more tube passes) FIG. 9-7: LMTD Correction Factor (4 shell passes; 8 or more tube passes) FIG. 9-8: Typical* Metal Thermal Conductivities, kw FIG. 9-9: Typical Heat Transfer Coefficients, U, and Fouling Resistances, rf FIG. 9-10: Variables in Exchanger Performance FIG. 9-11: Base Values for Use with Fig. 9-10 FIG. 9-12: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet FIG. 9-13: Heat Exchanger Detail Design Results FIG. 9-14: Propane Condensing Curve FIG. 9-15: A Typical Pool Boiling Curve FIG. 9-16: Typical Overall Boiling Heat Flux Ranges FIG. 9-17: Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Vertical Tubes FIG. 9-18: Kettle Reboiler on Column Bottoms FIG. 9-19: Recirculating Thermosyphon Reboiler on Column Bottoms FIG. 9-20: Once-Through Reboiler with Bottom Tray Feed FIG. 9-21: Pump Through Reboiler on Column Bottoms FIG. 9-22: Reboiler Selection Chart FIG. 9-23: Shell and Tube Exchanger Nomenclature FIG. 9-24: Shell and Tube Exchanger Selection Guide (Cost Increases from Left to Right) FIG. 9-25: Characteristics of Tubing FIG. 9-26: Tube Count vs. Diameter for Triangular Tube Pitch FIG. 9-27: Correction Factors for Number of Tube Passes FIG. 9-28: Adders to Shell Diameter FIG. 9-29: Double Pipe Heat Exchanger FIG. 9-30: Multitube Heat Exchanger FIG. 9-31: Typical Hairpin Exchanger Sizes FIG. 9-32: Prefabricated Tank Heater FIG. 9-33: Tank Suction Heater FIG. 9-34: Basic Components of a Three Stream Counterflow Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchanger FIG. 9-35: Approximate Maximum Plate-Fin Exchanger Sizes & Pressures FIG. 9-36: Three Basic Fin Types FIG. 9-37: Typical Fin Arrangements for Gas/Gas Exchanger FIG. 9-38: Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchanger Specifications FIG. 9-39: Heat Load Curve for a Three Stream Exchanger FIG. 9-40: Typical Operating Mass Velocities Gas Processing Exchangers FIG. 9-41: Typical Methanol or Glycol Injection Sparge System FIG. 9-42: Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger FIG. 9-43: Typical Gasket Material Temperature Limitations FIG. 9-44: Typical Fouling Factors for PHEs FIG. 9-45: Construction of a Two-fluid PCHE M10 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 10 — Air-Cooled Exchangers ARRANGEMENT & MECHANICAL DESIGN Advantages of induced draft Disadvantages of induced draft Advantages of forced draft The disadvantages of forced draft HEADER DESIGN AIR-SIDE CONTROL WARM AIR RECIRCULATION AIR EVAPORATIVE COOLERS Wet air type Wet tube type SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN STEAM CONDENSERS AIR COOLER LOCATION Single Installations Banks of Coolers MULTIPLE SERVICE DISCUSSION CONDENSING DISCUSSION THERMAL DESIGN MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 10-1: Nomenclature FIG. 10-2: Typical Side Elevations of Air Coolers FIG. 10-3: Typical Plan Views of Air Coolers FIG. 10-4: Angled Section Layout FIG. 10-5: Typical Construction of Tube Section with Plug and Cover Plate Headers FIG. 10-6: Internal Recirculation Design FIG. 10-7: External Recirculation Design FIG. 10-8: MTD Correction Factors (1 Pass – Cross Flow, Both Fluids Unmixed) FIG. 10-9: MTD Correction Factors (2 Pass – Cross Flow, Both Fluids Unmixed) FIG. 10-10: Typical Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients for Air Coolers U, W / (m 2 ·°C) FIG. 10-11: Fintube Data for 25.4 mm OD tubes FIG. 10-12: Friction Factor for Fluids Flowing Inside Tubes FIG. 10-13: Physical Property Factor for Hydrocarbon Liquids FIG. 10-14: Pressure Drop for Fluids Flowing Inside Tubes FIG. 10-15: J Factor Correlation to Calculate Inside Film Coefficient, ht FIG. 10-16: Air-Density Ratio Chart FIG. 10-17: Air Film Coefficient FIG. 10-18: Air Static-Pressure Drop FIG. 10-19: Correction Factor for Fluid Viscosity Within the Tubes M11 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 11 — Cooling Towers INTRODUCTION COOLING TOWER PSYCHROMETRICS Wet-bulb Temperature Types of Cooling Systems Tower Location PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Examples CONCENTRATION CYCLES TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS Mechanical Draft Towers Forced draft towers Induced draft towers Coil shed towers Natural Draft Towers Atmospheric spray towers Hyperbolic natural draft towers REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES FIG. 11-1: Nomenclature FIG. 11-2: Psychrometric Chart FIG. 11-3a: North American Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data FIG. 11-3b: International Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data FIG. 11-4: Cooling System Characteristics FIG. 11-5: Performance Characteristic Nomograph FIG. 11-6: Mechanical Forced Draft Counterflow Tower FIG. 11-7a: Mechanical Induced Draft Counterflow Tower FIG. 11-7b: one kw of input for every 18 000 m 3 /h of air.3 FIG. 11-8: Mechanical Draft Coil Shed Tower FIG. 11-9: Atmospheric Spray Tower FIG. 11-10: Hyperbolic Natural Draft Tower FIG. 11-11: Properties of Saturated Air M12 Table of Contents file://../TOC.pdf#page=1 Viewing Recommendations file://../help.pdf#page=6 Search the Data Book Help Data Book Help file://../help.pdf#page=1 Reader Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Reader.pdf#page=1 Search Online Guide file://../../Reader/HELP/Search.pdf#page=1 Section 12 — Pumps & Hydraulic Turbines Pumps EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEM EQUATIONS NET POSITIVE SUCTI