Governance for a Sustainable Future : The State of the Art in Japan

Although the expression “responsibility to future generations” is firmly established in public and political vocabulary, its operational meaning and practice are inadequately understood and yet to be systematically evaluated. Moreover, the term has not been successfully translated into viable ethical and theoretical concepts that can guide public policies and actions. How can the modes of governance and established policy priorities become compatible with the well-being of future generations? The primary objective of this book is to identify the conditions of and obstacles to governance for a sustainable future, or future-regarding governance. Governance concerns steering a society over extended periods of time, not responding to particular policy issues. The ideas and strategies proposed by contributors in this book to establish future-regarding governance are based on the theoretical and empirical analyses of the major long-term problems facing advanced democracies in general, and Japan in particular. Japan is an interesting case indeed. Relatively poor climate policy, rapidly decreasing birth rate, aging population, extensive public debt, prolonged economic recession, healthcare and pension systems that urgently require redesigning, hollowing-out of industries and subsequent loss of jobs, deteriorating infrastructures, increasing nuclear waste, and intensifying social polarization have caused a decline in people’s trust in the government and democratic processes. Currently, Japanese citizens are widely circulating their doubts about the social system’s sustainability. This book comprises two parts. In Part I, authors from various disciplinary backgrounds examine the idea of governance for a sustainable future from theoretical perspectives. This part discusses issues associated with future-regarding governance that are wicked in nature, such as the philosophical/ethical foundation on which to base the idea of governance for a sustainable future, major impediments to the development of future-regarding governance, and the modes of thinking and action required by leaders and citizens to realize such governance. Chapters in Part II largely focus on the state of long-term governance in Japan. This part uses empirical and in-depth analyses with cross-sectoral and cross-national policy perspectives to identify the state of future-regarding governance in various policy fields and major sectors or organizations mainly in Japan, while also examining strategies and measures to improve their performance. From this perspective, Western democracies and weak democratic regimes elsewhere will be provided with valuable lessons to avoid fatal policy mistakes, thereby improving future-oriented governance worldwide. By combining theoretical discussions on far-reaching issues and empirical analyses of Japanese cases, the book will shed a new light on governance for a sustainable future. Preface Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Long-Term Effects of Policies 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Principles for Sustainability 1.4 Strategies for Futurity References Part I Principles for Sustainability 2 Role of Legislators in Creating and Sustaining Governance for a Sustainable Future 2.1 Democratic Myopia 2.2 Public-Oriented and Future-Regarding Citizens 2.2.1 Participation as a Civic Virtue 2.2.2 Cognitive Biases 2.2.3 Mini-Publics 2.3 Future-Regarding Institutions 2.3.1 Constitutional Protection of Future Generations 2.3.2 Bicameral System 2.3.3 Transferring Part of Authority of Sovereign States to Relevant Local, Regional, or Global Bodies 2.3.4 Parliamentary Commission for Future Generations 2.3.5 Independent Executive Agency for Future Generations 2.3.6 Reserved Seats in the Legislature for Representatives of Future Generations 2.4 Public-Minded and Future-Regarding Leadership 2.4.1 The Will of Legislators to Adequately Deal with Long-Term Problems 2.4.2 Capacities to Appropriately Tackle Long-Term Problems 2.5 The Vital Need to Enhance the Quality of Deliberation in the Legislature 2.5.1 Legislative Leadership Programs 2.5.2 Quality of Legislative Deliberation References 3 Another Boundary Problem: Democracy, Future Generations, and the All-Affected Principle 3.1 Introduction 3.2 All-Affected Principle 3.3 Three Future-Oriented Virtues of the All-Affected Principle 3.3.1 Reasonable Change 3.3.2 Political Equality 3.3.3 Appling Principles 3.4 Three Future-Oriented Challenges Against the All-Affected Principle 3.4.1 Overinclusiveness 3.4.2 Irrelevance as a Righteous Standard 3.4.3 Implausible Satisfaction of Political Equality 3.5 Defending the All-Affected Principle 3.5.1 On Overinclusiveness 3.5.2 The Proper Place of the All-Affected Principle 3.5.3 Plausible Approximation to Political Equality 3.6 Non-Identity Problem 3.7 Conclusion References 4 Another Reason for Caring About Future Generations 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Scheffler on the Dependence of Our Values on the Existence of Future People 4.2.1 The Doomsday and the Infertility Scenarios 4.2.2 Some Worries on Scheffler’s Arguments 4.3 The Policy Implications of Scheffler’s Arguments References 5 Responding to Existential Risks: Grounds, Targets, and Strategies 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Definition and Location of Existential Risk 5.3 Utilitarian Views Examined 5.4 Equality, Priority, or Sufficiency 5.5 Prevention, Mitigation, and Rehabilitation 5.6 Conclusion References 6 Trade-Off Between Repugnant and Sadistic Conclusions Under the Separability of People’s Lives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Framework and Interpretations of the Two Conclusions 6.3 Impossibility and Axioms 6.4 Repugnant and Sadistic Conclusions Under Separability 6.5 Separability Problem 6.6 Concluding Remarks Appendix References 7 Dealing with “Wickedness” in Long-Term Problem-Solving 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Policy Design Strategies 7.2.1 Policy Design as Instrumental Choice 7.2.2 “Smart Patching” Approach 7.3 Wicked Problem and Deliberative Policy Design 7.3.1 Wicked Problems and Stakeholder Relation 7.3.2 Strategies to Deal with Wicked Problems 7.4 Analysis of Wicked Problems and Wickedness 7.4.1 Challenges of Wicked Problem-Solving 7.4.2 Breakdown Approach to “Wicked Problem” 7.5 Implications on Long-Term Problem-Solving 7.5.1 Gradual Policy Improvement and “Wait-and-See” Option 7.5.2 Gradual Policy Improvement and Institutional Change 7.6 Conclusion References 8 Governing Long-Term Structural Changes in Socio-Technological Systems and Their Difficulties: What Do Sustainability Transition Studies Have to Address? 8.1 What Are Sustainability Transition Studies? 8.2 MLP as the Underlying Theoretical Framework 8.3 Deepening MLP 8.3.1 Reflecting on the Current Penetration of MLP in Practice 8.3.2 Proposing an Integrated Model for a More Spatially-Sensitive MLP 8.3.3 Exploring Japanese Electricity System Reforms as an Example 8.4 Discussion: Difficulties and Possibilities in Designing and Governing Long-Term Policies for Sustainability Transitions 8.4.1 Uncertainties and Open-Ended Processes Characteristic of Sustainability Transitions 8.4.2 Addressing What the ST Literature Cites as an Ambivalence 8.4.3 Forming a Framework Considering an Impossible Ex-Ante Outcome Evaluation 8.5 Conclusion: Significance and Implications for Further Study References 9 The Politics of Eco-nomics: A Critical Investigation of ‘the Governance for a Sustainable Future’ from the Perspective of Heterodox Economics 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Modern Economics and Environmental Issues 9.2.1 Basics of Micro-Economics on Environmental Issues 9.2.2 Basics of Macro-Economics on Environmental Issues 9.3 Heterodox Economics and Environmental Issues 9.3.1 Heterodox Economics and Their Basic Arguments and Disputes 9.3.2 Ecological Economics and Its Critique of Orthodox Economics 9.3.3 Growthism and Steady State Economy Theory 9.3.4 Pluralist Critique of Monism on Environmental Issues 9.3.5 ‘What is Heterodox Economics’ Revisited 9.4 The Marginalization of the Radicals and the Politics of Eco-nomics 9.4.1 Structural Constraints of the Radicals 9.4.2 The Politics of Truth 9.4.3 Toward a New Politics of Eco-nomics 9.5 Conclusion References Part II Strategies for Futurity 10 Tokyo’s Linked CO2 Cap-and-Trade Program: A Blueprint for Cooperative Market-Based Megacity Climate Policy? 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Linked TMG CaT: A Sustainable Local Carbon Pricing Instrument? 10.2.1 Design Evaluation 10.2.2 Program Performance 10.3 The Linked TMG CaT: An Example for Successful Local Climate Governance? 10.3.1 The Local Political Economy of the TMG CaT 10.3.2 Institutional Success Factors for the Tokyo-Saitama CaT Link 10.4 Conclusions References 11 Multidimensional Policy Analysis of the Energy System Transition in Japan: Case Studies of Local Energy Systems and Lessons to Improve Sustainability 11.1 Policy Analysis Toward Sustainability Transitions 11.2 Multidimensional Policy Analysis for Independent and Decentralized Energy Systems 11.3 Political Process Analysis on the Special Renewable Energy Act 2011 11.3.1 Political Process Before the Great East Japan Earthquake (March 11, 2011) 11.3.2 Political Process After the Great East Japan Earthquake 11.3.3 A Synthesis of the Political Process Analysis 11.4 Case Studies of Decentralized Energy Systems 11.4.1 Case Study of Higashi-Matsushima, Miyagi 11.4.2 Case Study of Nakanojo, Gunma 11.4.3 Case Study of Odawara, Kanagawa 11.5 Synthesis and Conclusion References 12 Climate Change Adaptation for Futurity: Public–Private Partnerships in the Japanese Insurance Sector 12.1 Climate Change Adaptation and PPPs 12.1.1 Adaptation and Challenges to Adaptation 12.1.2 Background of PPPs and Their Potential for Adaptation 12.1.3 Accumulated Knowledge 12.1.4 Chapter Objective 12.2 Methods 12.3 Case Study: Adaptation of a Japanese Insurance Company 12.3.1 Overview of Adaptation PPPs in the Insurance Sector 12.3.2 Analysis of Mangrove-Planting Project 12.3.3 Analysis of Weather Insurance 12.4 Discussion 12.5 Conclusion References 13 Keeping Your Fossil-Fuel Cake While Eating It? Comparing the Decarbonization Approach of BP, Chevron, ExxonMobil and Shell 13.1 Introduction 13.2 The Scope of Decarbonization Ambitions 13.2.1 Net-Zero Targets 13.2.2 Divergent Pathways to Net-Zero Targets 13.3 Ambitions to Scale-Down Fossil-Fuel Production 13.4 Decarbonization Via Offsets 13.5 Decarbonized Hydrocarbons: Domains of Application 13.5.1 Shipments of “Carbon-Neutral” Hydrocarbons 13.5.2 Aviation 13.6 Problems with Reliance on Offsets 13.7 Conclusions and Discussion 13.8 Implications for Japan References 14 Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Critical Raw Materials 14.3 Critical Raw Materials and Energy 14.3.1 Critical Raw Materials and Clean Energy 14.3.2 Critical Raw Materials, Electric Vehicles, and Power Generation 14.3.3 Critical Raw Materials and Solar Power 14.3.4 Critical Raw Materials and Wind Power 14.3.5 Critical Raw Materials and Other Renewables 14.3.6 Critical Raw Materials and Nuclear Power 14.4 The Need for Unprecedented Volumes of Critical Raw Materials 14.4.1 Some Geopolitical and ESG Issues 14.4.2 Limited Prospects for Recycling and Substitution 14.5 Conclusions References 15 The Politics of Evidence in Japan: Struggling Between Efficiency and Effectiveness and Beyond 15.1 Introduction 15.2 EBPM in Japan: “Three Arrows of EBPM” 15.3 “First Arrow of EBPM” 15.4 “Second Arrow of EBPM” 15.5 “Third Arrow of EBPM” 15.6 Summarize of EBPM in Japan 15.7 Some Problems of EBPM 15.8 Conclusion: Struggling Between Effectiveness and Efficiency and Beyond References 16 Governance Under Uncertainties for the COVID-19 Pandemic: Policy Lessons Learned in Japan from Resilience Perspectives 16.1 Introduction and Background 16.2 Framework of Resilience-Based Public Policy and Its Application to the COVID-19 16.2.1 “Resilience Perspective” in the Contexts of the COVID-19 16.2.2 Resilience-Based Public Policy in Association with the COVID-19 16.3 Case Analysis from Resilience Perspectives: Japan 16.3.1 Overall 16.3.2 Resource Management 16.3.3 Information Sharing 16.3.4 Risk Communication and Policy Decision-Making 16.4 Local Best Practices 16.5 Resilience Points of Views 16.6 Analysis Results 16.7 Implication for Sustainable Future and Conclusion References 17 The Challenges for Health Systems and Policies: Growing Medicalization and Global Risks 17.1 Introduction: Political Ambiguity and Sustainability Challenges 17.2 Governing the Health Sector: Mission Impossible? 17.2.1 The Health-Care State: Actors, Institutions, and Governance 17.2.2 The Regulatory Function 17.2.3 The High Financial Burden 17.3 Questioning an Unsustainable Model 17.3.1 Sustainability in Managerial Terms 17.3.2 Medicalization Versus Population Health 17.3.3 Transboundary Pressure on Health Systems: The Massive Risks 17.4 Milestones for Population Health and Sustainability 17.4.1 Conceptualizing Transboundary Dynamics 17.4.2 Coupling Behavioral and Structural Prevention 17.4.3 Coordination in Practice: Interprofessional, Trans-Sectoral, and Multilevel 17.4.4 Global Crisis as Global Opportunity 17.5 Conclusion: Political Conditions and Leadership References