Gorilla Biology: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology, Series Number 34)

Gorillas, one of our closest living relatives, are the largest living primates, and teeter on the brink of extinction. This study offers the first comparative perspective on gorilla populations throughout their natural range, and covers all known subspecies. Discussing phylogeny, evolution, functional morphology, behavioral ecology and conservation biology, this multidisciplinary work will be essential reading for primatologists, anthropologists, animal behaviorists and evolutionary biologists. Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 5 Title......Page 7 Copyright......Page 8 Dedication......Page 9 Contents......Page 11 Contributors......Page 15 Acknowledgments......Page 21 Epigraph......Page 22 Introduction: Gorilla biology: Multiple perspectives on variation within a genus......Page 23 Part 1 Gorilla taxonomy and comparative morphology......Page 31 1 An introductory perspective: Gorillas – How important, how many, how long?......Page 33 References......Page 35 Prologue......Page 37 The gorilla becomes known to science......Page 38 Early studies on the gorilla’s anatomy......Page 39 Paul Matschie: Let a hundred species bloom......Page 40 Pygmy gorillas?......Page 43 Order out of chaos......Page 44 Recent understanding of the anatomy of the gorilla: Normal and pathological......Page 47 Epilogue......Page 48 References......Page 53 Introduction......Page 57 Materials and methods......Page 58 Analysis of raw measurements......Page 62 Analysis of size-adjusted measurements (shape)......Page 68 Discussion......Page 76 References......Page 81 Introduction......Page 84 Gorillas in paleoanthropological fossil species recognition studies......Page 85 Population thinking, intraspecific variation, and the hierarchy of morphological variation......Page 87 Materials and methods......Page 89 Sampling strategy......Page 91 Measurements......Page 94 Principal components analysis......Page 95 Overall species level variation......Page 98 Sexual dimorphism......Page 100 Subspecific level variation......Page 104 Demic level variation......Page 106 Locality level variation......Page 107 Sexual dimorphism......Page 108 Intraspecific variation within sexes......Page 111 Population thinking and species structure......Page 113 Implications for interpreting fossil variation......Page 115 Sampling strategy for constructing yardsticks......Page 116 Concluding remarks......Page 119 Acknowledgments......Page 120 References......Page 121 Introduction......Page 126 Morphology......Page 127 Molecular variation......Page 129 Ecology and social behavior......Page 130 Gorillas and subspecies......Page 131 Craniometrics......Page 132 Discrete traits......Page 133 F and morphological variation......Page 134 F estimation......Page 135 Population size, morphometric size adjustment, and heritability......Page 136 Discrete trait analyses......Page 137 F estimation......Page 138 Discrete trait analyses......Page 140 Degree of variation in Gorilla......Page 141 Comparisons to other species......Page 142 Concordance and variation......Page 144 Evolutionary history......Page 146 Conservation issues......Page 147 Acknowledgments......Page 148 References......Page 149 Introduction......Page 154 Cranial, dental, and mandibular variation......Page 155 Morphological correlates of folivory/herbivory......Page 159 Morphological predictions in gorilla subspecies......Page 161 Gorillas as a comparative model......Page 165 Samples......Page 166 Measurements......Page 167 Methodological approach......Page 168 Statistical approach......Page 169 Results......Page 172 Discussion......Page 183 Do gorilla subspecies differ in craniomandibular size?......Page 184 Ontogeny and allometry of jaw form in gorillas......Page 186 Adaptive differences in masticatory form......Page 189 Discrepancies between theoretical predictions and morphology......Page 191 Summary of morphological findings......Page 195 Evolutionary implications......Page 197 Gorilla taxonomy......Page 199 Conclusions......Page 201 References......Page 202 Introduction......Page 216 Subspecies of Gorilla......Page 217 Taxonomic issues......Page 218 Variation in positional and locomotor behavior in Gorilla......Page 219 Morphological variation in Gorilla......Page 220 Scapula......Page 222 Hands and feet......Page 223 Other postcranial comparisons......Page 226 Allometry and ontogeny......Page 227 Ontogenetic “criterion-of-subtraction”......Page 228 Shoulder......Page 230 Multivariate regression analyses......Page 232 Bivariate regression analyses......Page 235 Shoulder......Page 236 Elbow......Page 238 Wrist......Page 239 Summary of results......Page 241 Arboreality versus terrestriality: the relationship between form and function......Page 242 Evolution of knuckle-walking in the African apes......Page 244 Taxonomic status of Gorilla......Page 247 Conclusions......Page 249 References......Page 250 Part 2 Molecular genetics......Page 259 8 An introductory perspective: Gorilla systematics, taxonomy, and conservation in the era of genomics......Page 261 References......Page 266 Previous genetic results......Page 269 Goals of the study......Page 271 Loci examined......Page 272 Data analyses......Page 274 MtDNA......Page 275 Nuclear DNA......Page 278 Sequencing results......Page 280 Explaining the difference between Pan and Gorilla......Page 281 Implications for Gorilla taxonomy and biogeography......Page 282 Implications for other species......Page 283 Conclusions......Page 284 References......Page 285 Classification......Page 291 Origins of divergence......Page 293 Conservation genetics......Page 294 Noninvasive sampling strategies......Page 295 Feces......Page 296 Mitochondrial DNA......Page 297 Genetic studies of lowland gorillas throughout central Africa......Page 298 Mitochondrial DNA analysis......Page 300 Microsatellite DNA analysis......Page 303 Gorilla phylogeography......Page 307 Central African Republic......Page 308 Conservation implications......Page 309 References......Page 310 Part 3 Behavioral ecology......Page 315 11 An introductory perspective: Behavioral ecology of gorillas......Page 317 References......Page 322 Introduction......Page 324 The ecological model of primate female relationships......Page 325 Mountain gorilla females and the ecological model......Page 326 Male infiuence on female grouping......Page 327 Male influences on relationships between females......Page 329 Male–male relationships and male life histories......Page 330 An analysis of long-term consistency and change in male–female relationships: A case study......Page 331 Possible differences from mountain gorillas......Page 337 Other primates......Page 339 Group-living equids......Page 341 Summary and conclusions......Page 343 References......Page 344 Introduction......Page 350 Study site and methods......Page 352 Ecology of the Kahuzi and Itebero sites......Page 354 Ape habituation and density estimates......Page 356 Phenology of fruits and diet of gorillas......Page 357 Group size and fruit abundance......Page 359 Day range......Page 361 Intergroup relationships......Page 362 Relationships with sympatric chimpanzees......Page 363 Group size and frugivory in gorillas......Page 364 Within-group competition and foraging strategy of gorillas......Page 367 Sympatry with chimpanzees......Page 369 Conclusions......Page 371 References......Page 372 Introduction......Page 380 Highland versus lowland gorillas......Page 381 Predicting comparative behavioral ecology of lowland and mountain gorillas: The bonobo/chimpanzee analogy......Page 382 Study sites and subjects......Page 384 Data collection......Page 385 Vegetation diversity/density and diet......Page 387 Foraging effort......Page 388 Group cohesion......Page 391 The formation of temporary subgroups......Page 393 Results of within-population comparisons......Page 394 Discussion......Page 397 Bwindi gorillas......Page 399 Lowland/highland gorillas and the bonobo and chimpanzee analogy: Where do Bwindi gorillas fit?......Page 400 Acknowledgments......Page 401 References......Page 402 Introduction......Page 407 Field research at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic......Page 409 Captive research at the San Francisco Zoological Gardens......Page 410 Food availability and gorilla diet at Bai Hokou......Page 411 Nutritional analyses of foliage and fruits: Consequences of dietary flexibility......Page 413 Comparison of nutritional composition of gorilla diet across sites......Page 414 Captive research on food preferences and taste sensitivity......Page 417 Gorillas as seasonal frugivores......Page 418 Are gorillas vacuum cleaners of the forest floor?......Page 420 References......Page 421 Part 4 Gorilla conservation......Page 427 16 An introductory perspective: Gorilla conservation......Page 429 References......Page 434 The status of gorilla populations......Page 436 Habitat loss or modification......Page 440 Hunting or poaching......Page 441 Disease transmission......Page 443 War and political unrest......Page 445 Protected areas......Page 446 Working with logging companies......Page 448 Conclusions......Page 449 References......Page 450 Introduction......Page 454 Distribution......Page 455 Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)......Page 457 Local distribution......Page 462 Gorilla censusing......Page 463 Estimates based on transect nest counts......Page 470 Demography and censuses......Page 473 Gorilla taxonomy......Page 474 Genetics and alpha taxonomy......Page 475 Genetics and conservation......Page 476 Gorilla habitats......Page 477 Diet and behavior......Page 478 Habitat structure and food distribution......Page 479 Life forms coexisting with gorillas......Page 480 Conclusions......Page 482 References......Page 484 19 The Cross River gorilla: Natural history and status of a neglected and critically endangered subspecies......Page 494 Geographical range......Page 495 Taxonomy and cranial morphology......Page 496 Genetics......Page 498 Ecology......Page 500 Grouping patterns......Page 507 Present distribution......Page 508 Numbers......Page 509 Threats and trends......Page 511 Conservation efforts and options......Page 512 References......Page 515 Afterword......Page 520 Index......Page 523 Publisher Description (unedited Publisher Data) Counter Gorillas Are One Of Our Closest Living Relatives, The Largest Of All Living Primates, And Teeter On The Brink Of Extinction. These Fascinating Animals Are The Focus Of This In-depth And Comprehensive Examination Of Gorilla Biology. Gorilla Biology Combines Recent Research In Morphology, Genetics And Behavioral Ecology To Reveal The Complexity And Diversity Of Gorilla Populations. The First Section Focuses On Morphological And Molecular Variation And Underscores The Importance Of Understanding Diverse Biological Patterns At All Levels In Testing Evolutionary And Adaptive Hypotheses And Elucidating Subspecies And Species Diversification. Following Are Discussions Of The Ecological Constraints That Influence Gorilla Social Organization And Highlight Their Surprising Flexibility. The Book Ends With Discussions Of The Conservation Status Of Gorillas And The Many And Increasing Threats To Their Continued Survival. Giving Insight Into The Evolutionary Biology Of These Unique Primates, This Book Will Be Essential Reading For Primatologists, Anthropologists And Evolutionary Biologists. A History Of Gorilla Taxonomy / Colin P. Groves -- Patterns Of Diversity In Gorilla Cranial Morphology / Rebecca M. Stumpf, John D. Polk, John F. Oates, William L. Jungers, Christopher P. Heesy, Colin P. Groves, And John G. Fleagle -- The Hierarchy Of Intraspecific Craniometric Variation In Gorillas : A Population-thinking Approach With Implications For Fossil Species Recognition Studies / Gene H. Albrecht, Bruce R. Gelvin, And Joseph M.a. Miller -- Morphological Differentiation Of Gorilla Subspecies / Steven R. Leigh, John H. Relethford, Paul B. Park, And Lyle W. Konigsberg -- Ontogeny And Function Of The Masticatory Complex In Gorilla : Functional, Evolutionary, And Taxonomic Implications / Andrea B. Taylor -- Intraspecific And Ontogenetic Variation In The Forelimb Morphology Of Gorilla / Sandra E. Inouye -- An Introductory Perspective : Gorilla Systematics, Taxonomy, And Conservation In The Era Of Genomics / Oliver A. Ryder -- Mitochondrial And Nuclear Dna Estimates Of Divergence Between Western And Eastern Gorillas / Michael I. Jensen-seaman, Amos S. Deinard, And Kenneth K. Kidd -- Genetic Studies Of Western Gorillas / Stephen L. Clifford, Kate A. Abernathy, Lee J.t. White, Caroline E.g. Tutin, Mike W. Bruford, And E. Jean Wickings -- An Introductory Perspective : Behavioral Ecology Of Gorillas / Caroline E.g. Tutin -- Gorilla Social Relationships : A Comparative Overview / David P. Watts -- Within-group Feeding Competition And Socioecological Factors Influencing Social Organization Of Gorillas In The Kahuzi-biega National Park, Democratic Republic Of Congo / Juichi Yamagiwa, Kanyunyi Basabose, Kiswele Kaleme, And Takakazu Yumoto -- Comparative Behavioral Ecology Of A Lowland And Highland Gorilla Population : Where Do Bwindi Gorillas Fit? / Michele L. Goldsmith -- Are Gorillas Vacuum Cleaners Of The Forest Floor? The Roles Of Body Size, Habitat, And Food Preferences On Dietary Flexibility And Nutrition / Melissa J. Remis -- An Introductory Perspective : Gorilla Conservation / Alexander H. Harcourt -- The Current Status Of Gorillas And Threats To Their Existence At The Beginning Of A New Millennium / Andrew J. Plumptre, Alastair Mcneilage, Jefferson S. Hall, And Elizabeth A. Williamson -- Distribution, Taxonomy, Genetics, Ecology, And Causal Links Of Gorilla Survival : The Need To Develop Practical Knowledge For Gorilla Conservation / Esteban E. Sarmiento -- The Cross River Gorilla : Natural History And Status Of A Neglected And Critically Endangered Subspecies / John F. Oates, Kelley L. Mcfarland, Jacqueline L. Groves, Richard A. Bergl, Joshua M. Linder, And Todd R. Disotell. Edited By Andrea B. Taylor And Michele L. Goldsmith. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Gorillas are one of our closest living relatives, the largest of all living primates, and teeter on the brink of extinction. These fascinating animals are the focus of this in-depth and comprehensive examination of gorilla biology. Gorilla Biology combines recent research in morphology, genetics and behavioural ecology to reveal the complexity and diversity of gorilla populations. The first section focuses on morphological and molecular variation and underscores the importance of understanding diverse biological patterns at all levels in testing evolutionary and adaptive hypotheses and elucidating subspecies and species diversification. Following are discussions of the ecological constraints that influence gorilla social organization and highlight their surprising flexibility. The book ends with discussions of the conservation status of gorillas and the many and increasing threats to their continued survival. Giving insight into the evolutionary biology of these unique primates, this book will be essential reading for primatologists, anthropologists and evolutionary biologists.