Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values (Monumenta Serica Monograph Series Book 66)

When in 1775 the scholar Wang Xihou 王錫侯 compiled a dictionary called __Ziguan__ 字貫, he wrote, for illustrative purposes, the personal names of Confucius and the three emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong in the introduction. In oversight, he recorded their complete names. This accidental writing of a few names was condemned by Emperor Qianlong as an unprecedented crime, rebellion and high treason. Wang Xihou was executed, his property confiscated and his books were burnt. His family was arrested and his sons and grandsons were killed or sent as slaves to Heilongjiang. It is surprising what an enormous impact the tabooing of names (__bihui__ 避諱) had on Chinese culture. The names of sovereigns, ancestors, officials, teachers, and even friends were all considered taboo, in other words it was prohibited to pronounce them or to record them in writing. In numerous cases characters identical or similar in writing or pronunciation were often avoided as well. The tabooing of names was observed in the family and on the street, in the office and in the emperor’s palace. The practice of __bihui__ had serious consequences for the daily lives of the Chinese and for Chinese historiography. People even avoided certain places and things, and refused to accept offices. They were punished and sometimes even killed in connection with the tabooing of names. The __bihui__ custom existed as an important element of Chinese culture and was perceived as significant by Chinese and foreigners alike. It was crucial for implementing social values and demonstrating the political hierarchy. The present work __A Good Son Is Sad if He Hears the Name of His Father__ is a systematic study of Chinese name-tabooing customs, which until now have been relatively little explored in Western-language Sinological studies. It attempts to provide a long-term perspective on the changing dynamics of tabooing and elucidates various aspects related to the fascinating topic of tabooing of names. Cover Half Title Title Copyright Dedication Contents Chronological Table Conventions Abbreviations Acknowledgements Chapter One: Introduction 1.1. Subject Matter 1.2. Terminology 1.2.1. Western Terminology 1.2.2. Chinese Terminology 1.3. State of the Field in Taboo Studies 1.4. Purpose and Scope of the Research 1.5. Relevance Chapter Two: Taboo and Name 2.1. Taboo 2.1.1. Concept 2.1.2. History of the Term “Taboo” 2.1.3. The Context of Taboo and Related Phenomena 2.1.4. Limitations of the Term 2.1.5. Taboo in China 2.1.6. Kinds and Functions of Taboo 2.1.7. Linguistic Taboo, bihui, and the Tabooing of Names 2.2. Name 2.2.1. Characteristics of Chinese Names 2.2.2. The Perception of Names 2.2.3. The Power of Names 2.2.4. Protection of Names 2.2.5. Naming 2.2.6. Interpretation of Names 2.2.7. Change of Names 2.2.8. Power of the Script Chapter Three: Basic Characteristics of Name Tabooing 3.1. Tabooed Persons 3.1.1. Emperors and Related Persons 3.1.2. Sages, Legendary Persons, Gods and Ghosts 3.1.3. Family 3.1.4. Persons of Respect 3.2. Taboo Names 3.3. Taboo Characters and Sounds 3.4. Ways of Tabooing 3.4.1. Replacement of Characters 3.4.2. Alteration of a Character 3.4.3. Omission of Strokes 3.4.4. Omission of Characters 3.4.5. Other Methods 3.5. Principles of Tabooing 3.5.1. Tabooing Starts after Mourning 3.5.2. No Taboo in the Ancestral Temple 3.5.3. The Taboo of the Interior (neihui 內諱) Observed Only Inside 3.5.4. No Taboo for Names of Deceased Distant Relatives 3.5.5. The Names of Earlier Ancestors Are Not Taboo 3.5.6. No Taboo after Abdication or Dismissal 3.5.7. Homonyms Are Not Tabooed 3.5.8. Two Characters of Composite Names Are Not Tabooed Separately 3.5.9. No Taboo in Written Texts and When Reading Shijing and Shangshu 3.6. Period of Tabooing 3.7. Place and Circumstances of Tabooing 3.8. Motives of Tabooing 3.8.1. Taboo out of Fear ( jihui 忌諱 or jinji 禁忌) 3.8.2. Taboo out of Reverence and Courtesy ( jinghui 敬諱) 3.8.3. Taboo out of Hate (ehui 惡諱 or zenghui 憎諱) 3.8.4. Taboo out of Legitimization and Usurpation Chapter Four: Beginnings of the Custom of Name Taboo in China 4.1. Origin and Time of Appearance 4.1.1. Roots of Name Tabooing in China 4.1.2. Discussion about Time of Appearance 4.1.3. Jinji 禁忌 and bihui 避諱 4.2. Shang (ca. 1600–1025 BC) 4.2.1. Sources 4.2.2. Characteristics of Name Tabooing in the Shang Period 4.3. Zhou (1025–221 BC) 4.3.1. Sources 4.3.1.1. Shangshu 尚書 4.3.1.2. Chunqiu 春秋 4.3.1.3. Liji 禮記 4.3.1.4. Other Sources 4.3.2. Characteristics of the Period 4.3.2.1. Taboo as a System 4.3.2.2. Methods for Tabooing 4.3.2.3. Types and Rules of Tabooing 4.4. Qin (221–207 BC) 4.4.1. Sources 4.4.2. Problems with the Character zheng 政/正 4.4.3. Characteristics of the Period Chapter Five: Name Tabooing from the Han to Southern and Northern Dynasties 5.1. Han (206 BC – 220 AD) 5.1.1. Sources 5.1.2. Characteristics of the Period 5.1.2.1. Codification of Name Taboos 5.1.2.2. Tabooed Persons 5.1.2.3. Rules and Methods of Name Tabooing 5.1.2.4. Practice of Name Tabooing 5.2. Three Kingdoms (220–280) 5.2.1. Sources 5.2.2. Decrees on Name Tabooing 5.2.3. Discussions about Name Tabooing 5.2.4. The Tabooing of Courtesy Names 5.2.5. Status of Name Tabooing in Wu: Problems of Homonyms and Punishment 5.2.6. Name Tabooing in Wei 5.2.7. Name Tabooing in Shu 5.2.8. Mutual Avoidance of Name Taboos 5.3. Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms (265–420) 5.3.1. Sources and General View 5.3.2. Western Jin 5.3.3. A New Method of Name Tabooing – “Situational Equivalents” and Others 5.3.4. The Tabooing of Names of Empresses and the Eastern Jin 5.3.5. The Tabooing of the Crown Prince’s Name 5.3.6. Conflict between Family Taboo and the Name of Office and Officials 5.3.7. The Tabooing of Posthumous and Era Names 5.4. Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589) 5.4.1. Sources 5.4.2. Southern Dynasties and Lists of Name Taboo 5.4.3. Northern Dynasties 5.4.4. Shared Names in the Family 5.4.5. Genealogical Records 5.4.6. Intentional Violation of Taboo Chapter Six: Culmination of the Custom of Name Taboo 6.1. Sui (581–618) 6.1.1. Sources 6.1.2. Brief Characteristics of the Period 6.1.3. Taboos of Rulers and Their Ancestors 6.1.4. “Unsystematic” Tabooing Methods 6.2. Tang (618–907) 6.2.1. Sources 6.2.2. Brief Characteristics of the Period 6.2.3. The Method of a Missing Stroke 6.2.4. Principles of Name Tabooing 6.2.5. Penalties 6.2.6. Diffusion of the Custom to Other Countries 6.2.7. Naming Taboo for Relatives of the Emperor 6.2.8. Family Taboo 6.2.9. Name Tabooing in Practice 6.3. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960) 6.3.1. Sources 6.3.2. Brief Characteristics 6.3.3. Later Liang 6.3.4. Later Tang 6.3.5. Later Jin 6.3.6. Later Han and Later Zhou 6.3.7. Ten Kingdoms 6.4. Song (960–1279) 6.4.1. Sources 6.4.2. Name Taboo of Emperors 6.4.3. A Large Number of Taboo Characters 6.4.4. Ancestors 6.4.5. Distant Ancestors 6.4.6. Imperial Examination 6.4.7. Name Tabooing in the States of Liao, Western Xia and Jin 6.4.7.1. Liao and Western Xia 6.4.7.2. Jin Chapter Seven: Last Centuries of Name Tabooing 7.1. Yuan (1279–1368) 7.1.1. Sources 7.1.2. Name Taboo 7.1.3. Inauspicious Characters 7.1.4. Law and Imperial Examination 7.1.5. Perspectives of Research on Yuan Dynasty Taboos 7.2. Ming (1368–1644) 7.2.1. Taboo Words 7.2.2. Taboo of the First Emperor of Ming 7.2.3. Imperial Name Taboos in the Ming Dynasty 7.2.4. Intensification of Tabooing at the End of the Dynasty 7.2.5. Other Taboo Examples 7.2.6. Decrees and Examples of Non-Tabooing 7.3. Qing (1644–1912) 7.3.1. Taboo of Emperors’ Names 7.3.2. Apogee of Name Tabooing in Qing 7.3.3. The Last Century of Qing 7.3.4. Further Examples of Name Taboo 7.3.5. Taboo Law and Punishment 7.3.6. Names of Barbarians 7.4. Name Taboo in Modern China 7.4.1. State Taboo 7.4.2. Private Taboo Chapter Eight: Consequences of Name Taboo for Chinese People 8.1. Changes in Language 8.1.1. Given Name (ming 名) 8.1.2. Other Names and Titles of People 8.1.3. Names of Offices 8.1.4. Geographical Names 8.1.5. Other Words and Terms 8.2. Consequences of Name Tabooing in People’s Lives 8.2.1. Resignation from Office or Function 8.2.2. Name Taboo during Imperial Exams 8.2.3. Penalties and Codes Chapter Nine: Historiographical Consequences and the Basics of the Discipline of Name Tabooing 9.1. Historiographical Consequences of Name Tabooing 9.1.1. Historiographical Changes because of Taboo 9.1.1.1. Change of People’s Names and Titles 9.1.1.2. Change of Geographical Names and Those of Former Books 9.1.2. Problems and Mistakes of Later Historiographers and Copyists 9.1.2.1. Mistakes Caused by Various Methods of Tabooing 9.1.2.2. Names and Titles Lost or Falsely Identified 9.2. Basics and Implementation of the Discipline of Name Tabooing 9.2.1. Recognition of Name Taboo 9.2.1.1. Problems Related to Methods of Applying Taboo 9.2.1.2. Other Problems in Recognizing Name Taboos 9.2.2. Verification of the Authenticity of Texts 9.2.3. Determining the Age of a Text 9.2.4. Identification of a Person 9.2.5. Identification of an Edition 9.2.6. Analysis of Old Meanings and Pronunciations 9.2.7. Textual Criticism and Exposure of Additions, Omissions, Changes and Errors Chapter Ten: Special Topics of Name Tabooing 10.1. Women and Taboo 10.1.1. Interior Taboo 10.1.2. Powerful Women and Taboo 10.1.3. Mothers and Female Ancestors of Emperors 10.1.4. Name Taboo of the Empress – Wife of the Emperor 10.1.5. Maternal and Other Private Taboos of Women 10.2. Religion and Taboo 10.2.1. Daoism 10.2.2. Buddhism 10.3. Rebellions and the Tabooing of Names 10.3.1. Name Taboo in the Taiping-Kingdom as an Example 10.4. Specific Historical Conditions 10.4.1. Avoidance of Taboos from Past Dynasties 10.4.2. Identical Name Taboos in Different States and Periods 10.4.3. Mutual Avoidance of Name Taboos from Different States 10.5. Impact on Neighboring Countries 10.5.1. A “Chinese” Tabooing of Names in Korea 10.5.2. A “Chinese” Tabooing of Names in Japan Concluding Remarks Bibliography Chronological Index: Taboo Names of Emperors and Other Famous Persons Index with Glossary