کاربردها و روش‌های GNSS با دی‌وی‌دی فناوری و کاربردهای GNSS

Over the past few years, the growth of GNSS applications has been staggering. And, this trend promises to continue in the foreseeable future. Placing emphasis on applications development, this unique resource offers a highly practical overview of GNSS (global navigation satellite systems), including GPS. The applications presented in the book range from the traditional location applications to combining GNSS with other sensors and systems and into more exotic areas, such as remote sensing and space weather monitoring. Written by leading experts in the field, this book presents the fundamental underpinnings of GNSS and provides you with detailed examples of various GNSS applications. Moreover, the software included with the book contains valuable processing tools and real GPS data sets to help you rapidly advance your own work in the field. You will find critical information and tools that help give you a head start to embark on future research and development projects. DVD Included! Contains valuable processing tools and data sets to complement many of the applications presented in the book. The software allows you to apply the details presented in the book and expand and enhance the provided code examples to suit your individual applications. Technology and Applications Series GNSS Applications and Methods 2 Contents 6 Preface 16 Chapter 1 Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Present and Future 20 1.1 Introduction 20 1.1.1 Current and Planned GNSS Constellations 21 1.1.2 GNSS User Architectures 22 1.1.3 Current GNSS Applications 25 1.1.4 Positioning Performance Measures 27 1.2 GNSS Signal Improvements 28 1.2.1 Additional GPS Frequencies 29 1.2.2 Higher Accuracy Ranging 29 1.2.3 Longer Ranging Codes 30 1.2.4 Higher Transmit Power Levels 30 1.3 Advanced Receiver Technology 31 1.3.1 Conventional Receivers 31 1.3.2 FPGA-Based Receivers 32 1.3.3 Software-Defined GNSS Receivers 33 1.4 Road Map: How To Use This Book 33 1.5 Further Reading 39 References 40 Chapter 2 GNSS Signal Acquisition and Tracking 42 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 GNSS Signal Background 42 2.2.1 BOC Signal Modulation 44 2.2.2 PRN Codes 45 2.3 Searching for PSK Signals 47 2.4 Tracking PSK Signals 53 2.4.1 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) 53 2.4.2 Frequency-Locked Loop (FLL) 55 2.4.3 Delay-Locked Loop (DLL) 56 2.5 Searching for BOC Signals 58 2.6 Tracking BOC Signals 61 2.6.1 BOC Tracking Using a Single Sideband (SSB) 63 2.6.2 BOC Tracking with Multiple-Gate Discriminators (MGD) 63 2.6.3 BOC Tracking with the Bump-Jumping (BJ) Algorithm 65 2.6.4 BOC Tracking with the Dual Estimator (DE) 67 References 72 Chapter 3 GNSS Navigation: Estimating Position, Velocity, and Time 74 3.1 Overview 74 3.2 Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) Estimation 75 3.2.1 Estimating Receiver Position and Clock Bias 75 3.2.2 Impact of Ionosphere Errors 81 3.2.3 Impact of Satellite-User Geometry (DOP) 82 3.2.4 Estimating Receiver Velocity and Clock Drift 83 3.2.5 Estimating Time 85 3.2.6 PVT Estimation Using an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) 86 3.2.7 Enhanced Accuracy via Carrier Phase Positioning 86 3.2.8 Error Sources 86 3.3 GNSS Simulator 88 3.3.1 GNSS Simulator Measurement Details 88 3.3.2 GNSS Simulator Interface Files 90 3.3.3 Postprocessing GNSS Simulator Output Files 92 3.4 GNSS Simulator Examples 93 3.4.1 Example 1: Simple Navigation 93 3.4.2 Example 2: Traveling Between Destinations 94 3.4.3 Example 3: Waypoint Navigation Using FlightGear 96 3.4.4 Example 4: Dual-Frequency Calculation 99 3.4.5 Example 5: Adding Galileo Satellites 101 3.4.6 Example 6: Spacecraft-Based Receiver 103 3.5 Summary 103 3.6 Programs and Tools Provided on the DVD 105 References 105 Chapter 4 Differential GNSS: Accuracy and Integrity 106 4.1 Introduction to DGNSS 106 4.2 Fundamentals of Differential GNSS 106 4.2.1 Error Sources and Degree of Spatial Correlation 108 4.2.2 Local Versus Regional DGNSS Corrections and DGNSS Networks 112 4.2.3 Means of Distributing DGNSS Corrections 113 4.2.4 Managing the Latency of DGNSS Corrections 115 4.3 DGNSS Integrity Threats and Mitigations 116 4.3.1 Integrity Threats and GNSS Faults 117 4.3.2 Integrity Threats from DGNSS System Faults 127 4.3.3 Integrity Threats from Signal Propagation Anomalies 128 4.4 Summary 133 4.5 Data Provided on the DVD 134 References 134 Chapter 5 A GPS Software Receiver 140 5.1 Introduction and Background 140 5.2 License, Development Environments, and Tools 141 5.2.1 License 141 5.2.2 GNU/Linux 141 5.2.3 Microsoft Windows 142 5.2.4 Apple Mac OS X 142 5.2.5 Displaying the Receiver Output 142 5.3 Example Data Sets 142 5.3.1 Data Set 1 143 5.3.2 Data Set 2, for Use with WAAS Corrections Data 143 5.4 Using the fastgps Software Receiver 143 5.4.1 Configuration File 143 5.4.2 Output Files 149 5.5 fastgps Software Receiver Architecture 150 5.5.1 Timing and Clock Management 151 5.5.2 Main Processing Loop 152 5.5.3 Acquisition 152 5.5.4 Tracking 155 5.5.5 Navigation 161 5.6 Suggested Future Improvements 164 5.7 Further Reading 165 References 165 Chapter 6 Integration of GNSS and INS: Part 1 168 6.1 Introduction 168 6.2 Inertial Navigation 169 6.2.1 Inertial Sensors 169 6.2.2 Coordinate Frames 170 6.2.3 Mechanization Equations 171 6.2.4 System Initialization 176 6.2.5 INS Error Model 176 6.3 GNSS/INS Integration Concepts 178 6.3.1 Motivation for GNSS/INS Integration 178 6.3.2 Integration Architecture Overview 179 6.3.3 Loose GNSS/INS Integration 179 6.3.4 Tight GNSS/INS Integration 181 6.3.5 Deep GNSS/INS Integration 183 6.4 Filtering/Estimation Algorithms 184 6.4.1 Overview of Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) for GNSS/INS 184 6.4.2 Time Evolution of a GNSS/INS System 187 6.5 GNSS/INS Integration Implementation 188 6.5.1 IMU Sensor Error Models 188 6.5.2 GNSS/INS Integration: Step-by-Step 191 6.6 Practical Considerations 191 6.6.1 Lever Arm 192 6.6.2 Timing Requirements 192 6.7 Summary and Further Reading 193 References 194 Chapter 7 Integration of GNSS and INS: Part 2 196 7.1 Introduction 196 7.2 Case Study 1: Low-Cost GNSS/INS Integrated Navigator 196 7.3 Case Study 2: Vehicle Sideslip Estimation 200 7.3.1 Motivation 200 7.3.2 Observability 203 7.4 Case Study 3: INS To Aid High-Accuracy GNSS 205 7.4.1 GNSS Ambiguity-Resolution Overview 206 7.4.2 Benefits of INSs to Ambiguity Resolution 207 7.5 Software Examples 208 References 208 Chapter 8 Integrated LADAR, INS, and GNSS Navigation 210 8.1 Introduction 210 8.2 LADAR-Based TERRAIN Integration Methodology 211 8.3 LADAR-Based Terrain-Referenced Position Estimation 215 8.3.1 Position Estimate and SSE Surface 215 8.3.2 Exhaustive Grid Search 217 8.3.3 Gradient-Based Search 219 8.4 Estimation of Inertial Velocity Error 221 8.5 Case Studies of TERRAIN System Performance 221 8.5.1 Case Study I—General Positioning System 221 8.5.2 Case Study II—Precision Approach Guidance System 224 References 229 Chapter 9 Combining GNSS with RF Systems 230 9.1 Location System Alternatives 230 9.2 RF Location Types and Classifications 232 9.2.1 Location by Proximity 233 9.2.2 Location by Radio Direction Finding (DF) and Angle of Arrival (AOA) 236 9.2.3 Location Using Doppler Frequency 238 9.2.4 Location Estimation Using Signal Strength 240 9.2.5 Location Using Time, Phase, and Differential Timing of Arrival (TOA,POA, and TDOA) 242 9.3 Estimation Methods 245 9.3.1 Deterministic Estimation Using Triangulation 245 9.3.2 Deterministic Estimation Using Nearest Neighbor 248 9.3.3 Nonranging-Based Location Estimation 250 9.3.4 Probabilistic Estimation Using Centroid/Center of Mass 251 9.3.5 Bayesian State Estimation 251 9.4 Integration Methods 253 9.4.1 Least-Squares Integration 253 9.4.2 Kalman Filter Integration 254 9.4.3 Contextual Processing 254 9.5 Example Systems 254 9.5.1 Pseudolites 254 9.5.2 Synchrolites 256 9.5.3 Self-Synchronizing Networks 256 9.5.4 GPS and Relative Navigation 257 9.5.5 TV-Based Location 257 9.5.6 Integration of Cellular Location Systems and GNSS 258 9.6 Examples Included on the DVD 259 9.6.1 RF Antennas 259 9.6.2 Doppler Calculations 259 9.6.3 K-Nearest Neighbor Plot 260 9.7 Further Reading 260 References 260 Chapter 10 Aviation Applications 264 10.1 Introduction 264 10.2 Classes of Aviation Augmentation Systems 264 10.3 Benefits of GPS and Augmentations to Aviation Users 266 10.3.1 Oceanic Flight 266 10.3.2 Overland Flight: En Route, Terminal, and Nonprecision Approach 267 10.3.3 Precision Approach and Landing 267 10.4 Future of GNSS Navigation in Aviation 268 10.4.1 GNSS Modernization 268 10.4.2 Next-Generation Air Traffic Management System (NextGen) 270 10.4.3 Backup Navigation Capabilities for Aviation 270 10.5 Functionality of Aviation Augmentation Systems 271 10.5.1 Augmentation System Performance Requirements 271 10.5.2 Error Bounding Under Nominal Conditions 272 10.5.3 Error Bounding Under Anomalous Conditions 276 10.5.4 Monitoring 280 10.6 Conclusion 283 10.7 Further Reading 284 References 284 Chapter 11 Integrated GNSS and Loran Systems 288 11.1 Introduction 288 11.2 Loran Overview 288 11.2.1 Loran-C 288 11.2.2 eLoran 290 11.3 Theory of Operation 291 11.4 Historical Reasons for GNSS/Loran Integration 294 11.5 Integration Scenarios 295 11.5.1 Position-Domain Integration 295 11.5.2 Range-Domain Integration 297 11.5.3 De ́ja` Vu Navigation: A Case Study of Range-Domain Integration 300 11.5.4 Integrity with Range-Domain Integration 302 11.5.5 Improved Accuracy for Loran Integrity 305 11.6 Conclusions 307 References 307 Chapter 12 Indoor and Weak Signal Navigation 310 12.1 Introduction 310 12.2 Signal Processing Considerations Related to Weak Signals 311 12.2.1 Acquisition of Weak Signals 313 12.2.2 Clock Stability and Integration Times 314 12.2.3 Tracking of Weak Signals 315 12.2.4 Cross-Correlation and Interfering Signals 316 12.2.5 Multipath Mitigation 317 12.2.6 Benefits of Future GNSS 319 12.3 Aiding Possibilities and Supportive Systems 319 12.3.1 Assistance 319 12.3.2 Supportive Systems for GNSS 320 12.4 Navigation Algorithms for Difficult Signal Conditions 322 12.4.1 Constraints on User Motion 323 12.4.2 Map Matching 324 12.4.3 Adaptive Algorithms 324 12.5 Quality and Integrity Monitoring 325 12.5.1 Introduction to Integrity Monitoring 325 12.5.2 Reliability Testing 326 12.5.3 Weighted Least-Squares Notation 327 12.5.4 Residuals and Redundancy 329 12.5.5 Global Test 330 12.5.6 Local Test 331 12.5.7 Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis 333 12.5.8 Parameters for Fault Detection and Exclusion 333 12.5.9 Multiple Outliers 334 12.5.10 Fault Detection and Exclusion in Kalman Filtering 335 12.5.11 Quality Control 335 12.5.12 The Practical Side of Quality Control 336 12.6 Examples Included on the DVD 338 12.6.1 Example 1: Acquisition of Weak Signals 338 12.6.2 Example 2: Fault Detection and Exclusion 341 12.7 Summary 342 12.8 Further Reading 343 References 343 Chapter 13 Space Applications 348 13.1 Introduction 348 13.2 Operational Considerations 348 13.2.1 Spacecraft Velocity 349 13.2.2 Orbit Geometry 349 13.2.3 Antenna Direction 351 13.2.4 Size and Power 351 13.2.5 Multipath 352 13.2.6 Signal Strength 352 13.2.7 Environment 353 13.3 Applications 354 13.3.1 Precise Orbit Determination 354 13.3.2 Real-Time Navigation 354 13.3.3 Formation Flying and Proximity Operations 355 13.3.4 Remote Sensing 356 13.3.5 Attitude Determination 357 13.3.6 High-Altitude GNSS 358 13.3.7 Launch, Entry, and Landing 359 13.4 GNSS Modernization 359 13.5 Example: Processing Raw Measurements from the GRACE Satellite 360 13.6 Summary 363 References 363 Chapter 14 Geodesy and Surveying 366 14.1 Introduction and Background 366 14.1.1 GNSS Surveying 367 14.1.2 GNSS Geodesy 368 14.2 Technical Overview 369 14.2.1 The Data Models and Processing Strategies of GNSS Geodesy and Surveying 369 14.2.2 Mathematical Models 370 14.2.3 Baseline Processing 375 14.2.4 Network Processing for Positioning 378 14.3 GNSS Ground Infrastructure—Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) Networks 379 14.3.1 The IGS Infrastructure 380 14.3.2 National CORS Infrastructure 383 14.4 Surveying and Geodesy Applications and Operational Modes 386 14.4.1 GNSS Surveying 387 14.4.2 GNSS Geodesy 391 14.5 The Future: The Next-Generation GNSS 395 14.5.1 The Benefits of More Satellites and Signals 395 14.5.2 Improvements to the GNSS Infrastructure 396 14.5.3 Applications and the Future 397 References 398 Chapter 15 Atmospheric Sensing Using GNSS Occultations 400 15.1 Introduction 400 15.2 Occultation Measurements 401 15.3 Atmospheric Retrievals 403 15.3.1 Derivation of Bending Angle Profiles 404 15.3.2 Ionospheric Calibration 406 15.3.3 Derivation of Atmospheric Profiles 407 15.4 Weather and Climate Applications 409 15.5 Recent Advances 411 15.6 Scripts and Data Included on the DVD 413 15.7 Further Reading 413 References 414 Chapter 16 Remote Sensing Using Bistatic GNSS Reflections 418 16.1 Introduction 418 16.1.1 General Discussion of Traditional Remote Sensing 419 16.1.2 Remote Sensing Using Reflected GNSS Signals 420 16.2 Reflection Geometry 421 16.2.1 Estimating the Surface Reflection Point Location 422 16.2.2 Delay and Doppler Spreading over the Surface 422 16.3 Signal Processing 422 16.3.1 Detection and Surface Mapping 424 16.3.2 Averaging Consecutive Correlations 426 16.3.3 Delay Waveforms and Delay Doppler Maps 427 16.4 Remote Sensing Theory 429 16.4.1 Bistatic Surface Scattering 429 16.4.2 The Bistatic Radar Cross Section 432 16.4.3 Sea Surface Modeling 433 16.4.4 Bistatic Scattering from Land 435 16.4.5 Bistatic Scattering from Sea Ice 436 16.5 Ocean Altimetry 437 16.5.1 Motivation 437 16.5.2 Aircraft Altimetry Measurements 437 16.5.3 GNSS Ocean Altimetry from Space 439 16.6 Ocean Wind and Wave Sensing 440 16.6.1 Aircraft Wind and Wave Measurements 440 16.6.2 Wave Sensing from Spacecraft 442 16.7 GNSS Bistatic Land and Ice Sensing 443 16.7.1 The History and Applications of GNSS Land Reflections 443 16.7.2 Spacecraft-Detected Land Reflections 445 16.7.3 The History and Applications of GNSS Ice Reflections 446 16.7.4 Spacecraft-Detected Sea Ice Reflections 447 16.8 Data Provided on the DVD 451 16.8.1 Specular Point Calculation Scripts 451 16.8.2 Surface Scattering Model 452 16.8.3 Spacecraft Data and Processing Tools 452 16.9 Further Reading 452 References 453 Chapter 17 New Navigation Signals and FutureSystems in Evolution 456 17.1 The History of GNSS 456 17.1.1 GPS 456 17.1.2 Modulation of Satellite Carrier Signals 458 17.2 Motivation for Evolution 458 17.2.1 Main Concept of Operation for Galileo 459 17.3 New Modulation Opportunities 460 17.3.1 Existing Spreading Symbol—BPSK Modulation 461 17.3.2 Binary Offset Carrier (BOC) Modulation 464 17.3.3 Multiplex BOC Modulation 472 17.3.4 Composite BOC Modulation 474 17.3.5 Time Multiplex BOC Modulation 476 17.3.6 Other Spreading Symbol Modulation Options 478 17.3.7 Alternative BOC (AltBOC) Modulation 480 17.4 Signal Multiplex Techniques 484 17.4.1 QPSK 485 17.4.2 Interplex 486 17.4.3 Other Techniques 487 17.5 Interference 487 17.5.1 Performance Metrics 489 17.5.2 Spectral Separation Coefficients (SSC) 492 17.6 Listing of Proposed Systems and Signal Characteristics 497 17.6.1 Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems I: GPS 498 17.6.2 Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems II: Galileo 499 17.6.3 Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems III: COMPASS 500 17.7 Summary 501 References 502 About the Editors 504 About the Contributors 504 Index 510 978-1-59693-329-3,GNSS,Artech House Inc. Over the past few years, the growth of GNSS applications has been staggering. And, this trend promises to continue in the foreseeable future. Placing emphasis on applications development, this unique and timely resource offers a highly practical overview of GNSS (global navigation satellite systems), including GPS. The applications presented in the book range from the traditional location and directions...to more exotic areas, such as remote sensing and space weather monitoring. Written by leading experts in the field, the book presents the fundamental underpinnings of GNSS and provides professionals with detailed examples of various GNSS applications. Practitioners also gain keen insight on the integration of GNSS with other signals and sensors. This title includes a CD-ROM! It contains valuable processing tools and data sets to complement many of the applications presented in the book.