Global ecology : a derivative of encyclopedia of ecology

Written by one of the most distinguished and best-known ecologists, this book deals with the ecology of planet earth, focusing on its ecological components, the biosphere, and one of the most important environmental issues facing us today - climate change. It is based on content from the well-respected Encyclopedia of Ecology (published in 2008), this volume has an international focus and covers a range of ecosystems. - Provides an overview of the theory and application of global ecology. - International focus and range of ecosystems makes Global Ecology an indispensable resource to scientists. - Based on the best selling Encyclopedia of Ecology. - Full color figures and tables support the text and aid in understanding. Cover Page......Page 1 Editorial Board......Page 3 Title page ......Page 4 ISBN 9780444536266......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 List Of Contributors......Page 8 Preface......Page 12 PART A Global Ecology, The Biosphere and its Evolution......Page 14 Introduction......Page 16 Model......Page 17 Living Matter......Page 18 Further Reading......Page 19 Introduction......Page 20 World Human Population, Energy Food Demand, and Energy Consumption......Page 21 Anthropogenic Impact on the Global Biogeochemical Cycles......Page 22 Global Land Use: Agriculture and Urbanization......Page 24 Conclusion: Philosophy of the Biosphere......Page 25 Introduction......Page 26 Mars......Page 27 Mars Future......Page 28 Biogeocoenosis as an Elementary Unit of Biogeochemical Work in the Biosphere......Page 29 Biogeocoenosis......Page 30 Biogeocoenotic Process......Page 31 Biogeocoenosis and the Biosphere......Page 32 Reductionism and Holism......Page 33 Further Reading......Page 35 Introduction......Page 36 Concept of the Biosphere, Definition of Term, and Method of Analysis......Page 37 The System of Axioms......Page 38 The Future of the Concept: Noo ̈sphere and the Modern Perspective......Page 39 Introduction......Page 40 Major Definitions......Page 41 Ecological Consequences of Deforestation......Page 42 Understanding the Extent of Deforestation and Degradation of Forests......Page 43 Estimation of Carbon Emissions......Page 44 Further Reading......Page 46 Introduction......Page 47 Studies on Indirect Effects of Nuclear War......Page 48 Rethinking the Unthinkable......Page 49 Behind and Beyond the Scenarios......Page 50 ‘Nuclear Winter’ Modeling – A Sketch......Page 51 Final Remarks......Page 52 Further Reading......Page 53 Early Stage of Water Formation on Earth......Page 54 Seawater Formation and Origin of Life......Page 55 Factors Governing Water Regime Changes......Page 56 General Organic Features in the Phanerozoic......Page 57 Sea Level in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic......Page 60 Oceanic Water Regime in the Pleistocene......Page 61 Sea-Level Fluctuations in the Holocene......Page 65 Further Reading......Page 66 ‘Prey–Predator’ System......Page 67 Strategy and Tactics of Prey–Predator Systems......Page 68 Evolution of Prey–Predator Systems......Page 69 Prey–Predator Systems as Food Web Components......Page 72 Introduction......Page 73 Organic Matter Degradation and Biogeochemical Cycling......Page 74 Transformations of Rocks and Minerals......Page 77 Metal and Metalloid Transformations......Page 79 Fungal Symbioses in Mineral Transformations......Page 80 Further Reading......Page 81 Gaia – Original Versions......Page 82 A Controversial Idea from the Beginning......Page 83 Where Is Gaian Science Headed?......Page 85 Introduction......Page 86 Physical Properties of Water......Page 87 Water and Climate......Page 88 Water Resources of the World......Page 90 Anthropopressure......Page 92 The Noosphere Concept......Page 93 Related Concepts......Page 94 Body and Soul......Page 95 Concepts......Page 96 Processes......Page 97 Structure......Page 98 Pedo-Memory......Page 99 Some Limiting Conditions......Page 100 Introduction......Page 101 General Principles of Life......Page 102 Life as a System......Page 104 Nature of Life: Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Approaches......Page 105 Life Is a Way of Matter Self-Organization......Page 108 Further Reading......Page 112 Microlevels of the Life Organization......Page 113 Life as Ecological Phenomena......Page 117 History of Life......Page 120 Perspectives of Life......Page 125 Further Reading......Page 126 PART B Global Cycles, Balances and Flows......Page 128 Importance of Calcium to Ecosystems......Page 130 The Global Calcium Cycle......Page 131 Ecological Consequences of Anthropogenic Perturbations to the Calcium Cycle......Page 132 Further Reading......Page 135 Introduction......Page 136 Turnover of Carbon in the Biosphere......Page 137 Carbon Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 139 Comparison of Carbon Biogeochemical Processes in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 140 Carbon Dioxide Interactions in Air–Sea Water System......Page 141 Global Climate Changes and Critical Loads of Sulfur and Nitrogen in the European Ecosystems......Page 143 Summary......Page 145 Further Reading......Page 146 Global Energy Balance......Page 147 Global Entropy Budget......Page 149 Radiative Exchange......Page 151 Dynamics......Page 154 Global Energy Balance and Climate......Page 156 Ecosystems and the Global Energy Balance......Page 158 Incoming and Outgoing Radiations and the Planetary Energy Balance......Page 160 Transformation of Solar Energy Inside the EAS......Page 161 Albedo......Page 162 Energetics of Photosynthesis and Vegetation......Page 163 Efficiency of Vegetation......Page 164 Energy Transfers, Trophic Chains, and Trophic Networks......Page 165 Further Reading......Page 166 Entropy Flows in the EAS......Page 167 Entropy Storage of the Biota......Page 168 Change of Entropy in the Terrestrial Biota......Page 169 Biota Performs the Work......Page 170 Humans and Biota......Page 171 Entropy Balance in Elementary Ecosystems......Page 172 Agricultural (Agro-) Ecosystems......Page 173 Conclusion......Page 174 Information and Information Flows in the Biosphere......Page 175 Summary......Page 177 Why Is Iron Important to Phytoplankton?......Page 178 Iron Limitation and Iron-Enrichment Experiments......Page 179 Speciation and the Bioavailability Conundrum......Page 181 Global Geochemical Cycling......Page 183 Biological Cycling......Page 185 Global Biogeochemical Cycling......Page 190 Evolution of Biogeochemical Cycling......Page 193 Summary......Page 195 Introduction......Page 196 Corg-Cycle......Page 197 Phosphorus......Page 199 Iron Cycle......Page 200 Biologically Mediated Reactions......Page 201 Trophic Organization of Microbial Communities......Page 202 The Nitrogen Cycle......Page 203 Long-Term Global and Regional Trends in the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 204 Nitrogen Export by Rivers......Page 207 Land-Use Controls to Reduce N Enrichment to Surface Waters......Page 208 Introduction......Page 210 The Oxygen Budget......Page 211 The History of Atmospheric Oxygen......Page 212 The Role of Ozone......Page 213 The Production and Destruction of Ozone......Page 214 Human Effects on Ozone......Page 215 The Human-Intensified Phosphorus Cycles......Page 217 Ecological Impacts of Phosphorus Use......Page 223 Further Reading......Page 226 Solar Constant and Solar Spectrum......Page 227 Solar Radiation Flow in the Earth’s Surface–Atmosphere System......Page 228 The Nature of Terrestrial Radiation......Page 229 Annual Global Mean Radiation Balance......Page 230 Introduction......Page 231 Nuclear Weapons Tests as a Source......Page 232 Pathway of Radionuclides and Transport Processes in the Atmosphere......Page 233 Pathways of Radionuclides and Transport Processes in the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 234 Biogeochemical Cycles of Long-Lived Radionuclides......Page 237 Radioecological Effects of Radionuclides after the Chernobyl Accident......Page 238 Further Reading......Page 239 Sulfur Cycle......Page 240 Sulfur Oxidation......Page 241 Sulfate Reduction......Page 243 Fluxes of the Global Biogeochemical Sulfur Cycle......Page 245 Summary......Page 246 Introduction......Page 247 Movement of Water between Stores......Page 248 Hydrological Processes......Page 249 Human Impacts......Page 250 Climate Change – Acceleration of Water Cycle......Page 251 Introduction......Page 252 POP Transport in the Northern Hemisphere......Page 253 Exposure Pathways of Dioxins and Dioxin- Like PCBs to Human......Page 255 Summary......Page 259 Relevant Website......Page 260 PART C Global Patterns and Processes......Page 262 Agricultural Lands......Page 264 Agricultural Inputs......Page 265 Agricultural Production......Page 268 Abandoned Agricultural Lands......Page 270 The Future of Agriculture......Page 272 Introduction......Page 273 The Metal Wheel – Material and Metal Ecology......Page 274 Product Design and Fundamental Recycling Optimization Models......Page 277 Recycling 1153 ELVs – From Theory to Practice......Page 281 Material and Metal Ecology......Page 285 Further Reading......Page 286 Methane Sources......Page 287 Conclusions......Page 288 Further Reading......Page 289 Global Ecology – Unique Perspectives from Space-Based Satellite Sensors/ Instruments......Page 290 Global Monitoring of Land Ecosystems......Page 293 Monitoring Global Oceanic Ecosystems, Coastal Zones, and Seas......Page 300 Atmosphere–Land–Ocean and Global Biogeochemical Transports......Page 303 Using Satellites Monitoring to Identify Ecological Niches Conducive to Disease Outbreaks......Page 306 Future Challenges......Page 308 Further Reading......Page 309 Relevant Websites......Page 310 The Ocean Currents, Climate, and Biosphere......Page 311 Past and Future Changes in Ocean Circulation......Page 314 Impact of Ocean Circulation Changes on Biosphere......Page 315 Further Reading......Page 316 Mean Global Precipitation Patterns......Page 317 The Antarctic......Page 322 Particular Precipitation Phenomena......Page 323 Meteorological Temperature Measurements......Page 324 Global Patterns of the SAT: Climatology......Page 325 Global Patterns of the SAT: Variability and Trends......Page 327 Summary......Page 328 Introduction and Definitions......Page 329 Past, Present, and Future of Urbanization......Page 330 Present and Future Dynamics of Urban Areas......Page 331 The City as a Specific Heterotrophic Ecosystem......Page 332 Environmental Effect of Urbanization and Ecological Footprint......Page 333 Carbon Balance in Urbanized Territories......Page 334 Introduction......Page 335 Parametrized Convection Model with Volatile Exchange......Page 336 The Weathering Process......Page 337 Weathering and the Global Carbon Cycle......Page 338 Biogenic Enhancement of Weathering......Page 340 Further Reading......Page 341 PART D Climate Change......Page 342 Carbon Budget Components......Page 344 Biosphere Response......Page 346 Further Reading......Page 347 Global Carbon Cycle and the Biosphere......Page 348 Coevolution of the Biosphere–Geosphere System......Page 352 Summary......Page 353 Introduction......Page 354 Pre-Quaternary Climates......Page 355 The Climate of the Last Millennium......Page 356 Further Reading......Page 358 History of the Concept of Coevolution of Biosphere and Climate......Page 359 The Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle......Page 360 What Regulates the Long-Term Climate?......Page 362 The Biotic Enhancement of Weathering and the Long-Term Carbon Cycle......Page 363 The Faint Young Sun Paradox and Its Solution......Page 365 The Temperature Constraint on Biologic Evolution......Page 366 From ‘Hothouse’ to ‘Icehouse’: The Increase in Diversity of Habitats for Life......Page 367 Introduction......Page 369 Observed Impacts on Ecosystems......Page 370 Vulnerability of Ecosystems to Future Change......Page 371 Further Reading......Page 374 PART E Ecological Stoichiometry......Page 376 Introduction......Page 378 Homeostasis and the Constraints of Mass Balance and Chemical Proportions......Page 379 The Biology of Elements......Page 380 Contrasting Homeostasis in Plants and Animals......Page 381 Stoichiometry of Limiting Elements......Page 383 Life Histories......Page 384 Nutrient Cycling, Flux, and Dynamics......Page 386 Animal Growth: Stoichiometry and Food Quality......Page 388 Complex System Dynamics Driven by Stoichiometry......Page 389 Large-Scale Stoichiometry......Page 392 Introduction......Page 393 Nutrient Limitation of Ecosystem Production......Page 394 Efficiency in Elemental Use......Page 395 Primary Producers and Consumers......Page 396 Large- Scale Implications of Ecological Stoichiometry......Page 400 Further Reading......Page 402 Introduction......Page 403 Diversity of Organismal Stoichiometry......Page 404 Elemental Composition and Biological Function......Page 405 Stoichiometry and Phenotypic Evolution......Page 410 Further Reading......Page 411 Organismal and Molecular Stoichiometry......Page 412 Acquisition of Nutrients......Page 414 Incorporation and Turnover of Elements......Page 416 Nutrient Release......Page 419 Further Reading......Page 420 Introduction......Page 421 Competition......Page 422 Commensalism......Page 425 Allelopathy......Page 426 Predator–Prey Interactions......Page 427 Community Assembly......Page 428 Physiological Variability in Stoichiometry......Page 429 Summary......Page 430 Introduction......Page 431 Essential Trace Elements......Page 432 Stoichiometric Relationships between Essential Trace Elements......Page 434 Uptake, Storage, and Efflux of Trace Elements......Page 437 Food Webs and Movement of Elements across Trophic Levels......Page 438 Further Reading......Page 440 A......Page 442 B......Page 445 C......Page 448 D......Page 451 E......Page 452 F......Page 455 G......Page 456 I......Page 458 L......Page 459 M......Page 460 N......Page 462 O......Page 464 P......Page 465 R......Page 468 S......Page 469 T......Page 472 W......Page 474 Z......Page 475 Global Ecology focuses on the perception of the biosphere or the ecosphere as a unified cooperative system with numerous synergistic effects, which describe the distinctive properties of this sphere. This book is subdivided into five parts dealing with diverse aspects in global ecology. The first part of the book provides comprehensive description of the biosphere, including its unique characteristics and evolution. This part also describes various spheres in the biosphere, such as the hydrosphere, noosphere, and pedosphere as well as their composition. The next part focuses on the global cycles, including calcium, carbon, iron, microbial nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and water cycles. In addition, global balances and flows are explained. Presented in the third part are the results of the global cycles and flows as well as the patterns of the climatic factors and marine currents. There is also a part discussing the climate interactions, climatic changes, and its effect on the living organisms. The book concludes by covering the application of stoichiometry in the biosphere and in ecosystems. The book offers a comprehensive view of global ecology and ecological stoichiometry, which will aid in the processes of global ecology. Provides an overview of the theory and application of global ecology International focus and range of ecosystems makes Global Ecology an indispensable resource to scientists Based on the bestselling Encyclopedia of Ecology Full-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understanding

Written by one of the most distinguished and best-known ecologists, this book deals with the ecology of planet earth, focusing on its ecological components, the biosphere, and one of the most important environmental issues facing us today – climate change. It is based on content from the well-respected Encyclopedia of Ecology (published in 2008), and this volume has an international focus and covers a range of ecosystems.

- Provides an overview of the theory and application of global ecology

- International focus and range of ecosystems makes Global Ecology an indispensable resource to scientists

- Based on the bestselling Encyclopedia of Ecology

- Full-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understanding