Gerulata: The Lamps - A Survey of Roman Lamps in Pannonia

For the ancient Romans, lamps were more than just a way to be able to see in the dark—they were mythical muses, witnesses to secrets, and instruments of the supernatural. Far more familiar to the average Roman than the high art of mosaics, statues, or frescos, lamps created the atmosphere of day-to-day life in the homes, workshops, and public houses of Roman provincial towns. This catalog brings together for the first time the 210 ancient lamps excavated since 1949 in Bratislava-Rusovce, a suburb of the capital of Slovakia and the site of the ancient Roman settlement of Gerulata. What may appear at first glance as a standard panoply of Roman lamps is comprehensively examined to uncover signs of wear and use, unique personal inscriptions, and exceptional forms. This book reveals the stunning wealth of knowledge that can be gained from the study of lighting devices in this liminal settlement on the tough northern frontier of the Roman Empire. Table of Contents Acknowledgments Legend List of abbreviations 1. Preface 2. Lampmaking Throughout the Ages and the Romans in Gerulata 2.1 History of lampmaking 2.1.1 The first lamps 2.1.2 The Greek re-inventions – nozzle and covered bowl 2.1.3 Roman light 2.1.4 The Romans acquire lamps 2.1.5 Roman lamps in Gerulata 2.2 Rome, Pannonia and the archaeological history of Gerulata 2.2.1 The geography of Pannonia 2.2.2 The literary sources 2.2.3 Early Roman conquest of Pannonia 2.2.4 Maroboduus 2.2.5 Rome stalls 2.2.6 Laying the ground for the future province 2.2.7 Gerulata and its environs 2.2.8 The first auxiliary fort 2.2.9 The creation of the limes in Pannonia, and the second century 2.2.10 The Marcomannic Wars 2.2.11 The third century and the destruction of Gerulata 2.2.12 Renewal in the ad 270s and the fourth century 2.2.13 Valentinian and the final phase of Gerulata 3. Catalogue of Lamps How to read this catalogue: Table of lamps from Gerulata Bildlampen 3.1 Loeschcke type I – Volute lamps 3.1.1 Loeschcke type 1 b 3.1.2 Loeschcke type 1 b/c 3.1.3 Loeschcke type I c 3.1.4 Non-specific fragments of Loeschcke type I lamps 3.2 Loeschcke type VIII – Round lamps 3.3 Fragments of Bildlampen Firmalampen 3.4 Loeschcke type IX – Early Firmalampen 3.4.1 Loeschcke type IX b 3.4.2 Loeschcke type IX c 3.5 Loeschcke type X – Later Firmalampen 3.5.1 Loeschcke type X: with relief stamps 3.5.2 Loeschcke type X: illegible stamps 3.5.3 Loeschcke type X: without stamps 3.5.4 Loeschcke type XK – with shortened nozzle 3.6 Unspecified fragments of Firmalampen 3.6.1 Firmalampen fragments with stamps 3.6.2 Firmalampen fragments without stamps Uncommon types 3.7 Lamps with multiple nozzles 3.8 Glazed lamps 3.9 Bronze lamps 4. Lamps for the Dead: the Cemeteries of Gerulata in Contemporary Funerary Practice 4.1 The last light 4.1.1 Two phases of burial in Gerulata 4.2 The case of Gerulata 4.2.1 Types of lamps in funerary contexts 4.2.2 The three cemeteries 4.2.3 Age and sex as factors 4.2.4 Lamps for the dead 4.2.5 Roman graves and provincial funerary practice 4.2.6 Lamps as personal objects in burial practice 5. Catalogue of Stamps, Inscriptions, Marks and Distinctive Features 5.1 Producers’ marks 5.1.1 Agilis 5.1.2 Aprio 5.1.3 Atimeti 5.1.4 S. C. A. 5.1.5 Campili 5.1.6 Cassi 5.1.7 Ceriali 5.1.8 Communis 5.1.9 Cresces 5.1.10 C. Dessi 5.1.11 Festi 5.1.12 Fortis 5.1.13 Q. G. C. 5.1.14 Litogenes 5.1.15 Lucius 5.1.16 L. Nari 5.1.17 Neri 5.1.18 Octavi 5.1.19 C. P. S. 5.1.20 Pulli 5.1.21 Strobili 5.1.22 Ursu 5.1.23 Vibiani 5.1.24 Vibius 5.1.25 Illegible stamps 5.2 Workshop marks 5.2.1 Ornamental marks 5.2.2 Dots, circles and bullseyes 5.2.3 Linear marks 5.3 Inscriptions, incisions, and marks of a personal nature 5.3.1 The ‘YYCO’ inscription 5.3.2 The ‘AY PR | O’ cursive relief 5.3.3 Other incisions 6. Catalogue of Discus Scenes and Iconography 6.1 The sacred 6.1.1 Gods, goddesses and heroes 6.1.2 Supernatural beings 6.1.3 Sacred objects 6.2 The mortal 6.2.1 Full figures 6.2.2 Masks 6.3 Animals 6.4 Plants, objects and ornaments 6.4.1 Plants 6.4.2 Objects 6.4.3 Ornaments 6.5 Indeterminate motifs 7. Conclusion 7.1 Concerning lamp types 7.1.1 Lamp statistics 7.1.2 The Bildlampen 7.1.3 The Firmalampen 7.1.4 The multinozzlers and special shapes 7.2 Concerning manufacture 7.2.1 Producers’ marks on the lamps of Gerulata 7.2.2 Gathering evidence for places of manufacture 7.2.3 Workshop marks on the lamps of Gerulata 7.2.4 Five modes of manufacture for Firmalampen 7.2.5 The case for long-distance trade in Gerulata 7.3 Concerning personal ownership and use of lamps 7.3.1 The olive oil supply 7.3.2 Alternative fuels, alternative light sources 7.3.3 Personal ownership expressed by involvement in the production process 7.3.4 Charred nozzles as indicators of use 7.3.5 Personal markings on the lamps of Gerulata 7.3.6 Lamps from the vicus, lamps from the camp 7.3.7 Lamps in the burial record 7.3.8 Who used the lamps of Gerulata? 7.4 Lamps in the context of Roman culture in Gerulata 7.4.1 The story of Amor and Psyche 7.4.2 Religious significance of lamps 7.4.3 Discus motifs on the lamps of Gerulata 7.4.4 Reception of Roman culture and religion in Pannonia 7.4.5 The role of the army Bibliography List of Illustrations Under License Appendices Appendix A: Age categories used to describe human remains in Roman graves Appendix B: Lamps dated by associated finds Appendix C: Distinctive features on lamps What should a catalogue of archaeological material contain? This book is a comprehensive index of 210 lamps from the Roman fort of Gerulata (present-day Bratislava-Rusovce, Slovakia) and its adjoining civilian settlement. The lamps were excavated during the last 50 years from the houses, cemeteries, barracks and fortifications of this Roman outpost on the Limes Romanus and span almost three centuries from AD 80 to AD 350. For the first time, they are published in full and in color with detailed analysis of lamp types, workshop marks and discus scenes. Roman lamps were a distinctive form of interior lighting that burned liquid fuel seeped through a wick to create a controlled flame. Relief decorations have made them appealing objects of minor art in modern collections, but lamps were far more than that – with a distribution network spanning three continents, made by a multitude of producers and brands, with their religious imagery depicting forms of worship, and as symbols of study and learning, Roman lamps are an effective tool that can be used by the modern scholar to discover the ancient economy, culture, craft organization and Roman provincial life. For the ancient Romans, lamps were more than just a way to be able to see in the dark - they were mythical muses, witnesses to secrets, and instruments of the supernatural. This catalog brings together 210 ancient lamps excavated since 1949 in Bratislava-Rusovce. It deals with lighting devices of the Roman Empire.