Germ theory : medical pioneers in infectious diseases

Germ Theory: Medical Pioneers in Infectious Diseases, SECOND EDITION From the ancient worlds of Hippocrates and Avicenna to the early 20th century hospitals of Paul Ehrlich and Lillian Wald to the modern-day laboratories of François Barré-Sinoussi and Barry Marshall, Germ Theory brings to life the inspiring stories of medical pioneers whose work helped change the very fabric of our understanding of how we think about and treat infectious diseases. In beautifully crafted narratives, author Robert Gaynes describes and presents compelling stories, including How Edward Jenner, the pioneer of vaccination, faced down scores of naysayers How a chance discovery led Louis Pasteur to the idea that the virulence of microbes can be altered How scientists in France, the Netherlands, and Denmark produced penicillin during World War 2 while keeping their efforts hidden from the Nazis The second edition features three new chapters based on interviews with Nobel Laureates François Barré-Sinoussi and Barry Marshall, and former NIAID Director and medical advisor to seven U.S. presidents Anthony Fauci, detailing fascinating accounts from their careers, including their groundbreaking work in the areas of HIV, peptic ulcers, and COVID-19, respectively. Winner of a CHOICE Outstanding Academic Title award for its first edition, Germ Theory is required reading for anyone training or working in the field of infectious diseases or with an interest in microbes, the history of medicine, or how new discoveries can bring about paradigmatic shifts in thinking. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents List of Illustrations Foreword Preface Special Note Acknowledgments About the Author Chapter 1 Introduction References Chapter 2 Hippocrates, the Father of Modern Medicine Medicine before Hippocrates Hippocrates Natural Cause for Disease The Four Humors and Disease The Coan School of Medicine Fever and the Four Humors The Foundation of Evidence-Based Medicine The Hippocratic Oath The Hippocratic Corpus: Epidemics The Lasting Influence of the Humoral Theory on Medicine Evolution of the Humoral Theory through the Centuries after Hippocrates Galen: His Legacy References Chapter 3 Avicenna, a Thousand Years Ahead of His Time Bubonic Plague in the Middle Ages Medicine in the Medieval Islamic World Role of Translation in the Establishment of Medieval Islamic Medicine Changes to Medical Education in Medieval Islamic Medicine Avicenna, the Prince of Physicians The Canon of Medicine Beginnings of Evidence-Based Clinical Trials The Concept of Contagion The Canon of Medicine’s Influence in Western Medicine References Chapter 4 Girolamo Fracastoro and Contagion in Renaissance Medicine Plague in the Renaissance Syphilis in the Renaissance Stages of Syphilis Girolamo Fracastoro: Early Influences Fracastoro’s Epic Poem—Syphilis sive morbus Gallicus Fracastoro: on Contagion and Contagious Disease Reaction to De Contagione Fracastoro and the Council of Trent The Tumult over Fracastoro’s Burial Place The Rediscovery of De Contagione References Chapter 5 Antony van Leeuwenhoek and the Birth of Microscopy The Discovery of the Microscopic World Antony van Leeuwenhoek: Early Influences van Leeuwenhoek and Lens Making van Leeuwenhoek and the Royal Society in London Reactions to van Leeuwenhoek’s Microscopic Discoveries The First Description of Bacteria van Leeuwenhoek’s Microscopes Modern Investigations into van Leeuwenhoek’s Microscopes Spontaneous Generation and van Leeuwenhoek Microorganisms and Disease in the Enlightenment References Chapter 6 The Demise of the Humoral Theory of Medicine Andreas Vesalius and His Challenge to Galenic Anatomy The Challenge to Galenic Physiology: William Harvey, the Discovery of the Circulation of Blood, and the Scientific Method in Medicine Morgagni and the Anatomic Basis of Disease The Paris School of Medicine The Rise of Modern Hospitals in Western Medicine Contagion and 18th-Century Medicine The Sanitary Movement, Contagion, and 19th-Century Medicine Contagionism versus Anticontagionism in the 19th Century References Chapter 7 Edward Jenner and the Discovery of Vaccination The Disease of Smallpox A Short History of Smallpox Smallpox in the 18th Century Contagion and Smallpox in the 18th Century Variolation and the “Control” of Smallpox Lady Mary Wortley Montagu Edward Jenner: Early Influences Milkmaids, Cowpox, and Smallpox The First Inoculation against Smallpox Publication of An Inquiry into the Causes and Effectsof the Variolae Vaccinae Reaction to An Inquiry into the Causes and Effectsof the Variolae Vaccinae Thomas Jefferson’s Letter to Jenner Vaccination and the Eradication of Smallpox Global Application of Vaccination Vaccinia Virus in the Contemporary Smallpox Inoculation Success of Vaccination References Chapter 8 Ignaz Semmelweis and the Control of Puerperal Sepsis The Development of Hospitals in Western Medicine The Tragedy of Puerperal Fever Theories about the Causes of Puerperal Fever in the 18th and 19th Centuries Alexander Gordon and Puerperal Fever in England Contagion versus Infection in Early 19th-CenturyMedicine Oliver Wendell Holmes and Puerperal Fever in America Ignaz Semmelweis: Early Influences The University of Vienna Hospital: A Short History Semmelweis and Childbed Fever: A Tale of Two Divisions The Tragic Clue to Childbed Fever Prevention of Childbed Fever: Hand Washing Reaction to Hand Washing Semmelweis’s Departure from Vienna The Return to Hungary Opposition to Semmelweis and His Theory Semmelweis’s Last Years References Chapter 9 Louis Pasteur and the Germ Theory of Disease Louis Pasteur: Early Influences Pasteur the Chemist and the Discovery of Crystals The “Diseases” of Fermentation Pasteurization Spontaneous Generation and Louis Pasteur Diseases of Silkworms and Their Role in the Germ Theory of Disease The Germ Theory of Disease, Pasteur, and Medicinein the 19th Century Pasteur’s Work on Anthrax The Discovery of Toxin Production from Anthrax Bacilli Chicken Cholera and Attenuation of Microorganisms Pasteur and the Anthrax Vaccine The Rabies Vaccine Reaction to the Rabies Vaccine Pasteur’s Last Years References Chapter 10 Robert Koch and the Rise of Bacteriology Robert Koch: Early Influences The Discovery of Anthrax Spores Improvements in Microscopy Koch’s Move to Berlin The Development of Pure Bacterial Cultures The Discovery of the Tubercle Bacillus Koch’s Postulates The Discovery of the Causative Agent of Cholera The Rivalry between Koch and Pasteur The Mistranslation of a Word The Institute of Hygiene The Tuberculin Fiasco Public Reaction to Koch’s Announcement The Effects of Tuberculin Failure on Koch The Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin Cholera in Germany: A Public Health Triumph for Koch The Robert Koch Institute The 1905 Nobel Prize in Medicine References Chapter 11 Joseph Lister, the Man Who Made Surgery Safe The Discovery of Anesthesia Surgery before Joseph Lister History of the Treatment of Wounds Joseph Lister: Early Influences James Syme in Edinburgh Marriage of Joseph Lister and Agnes Syme The Move to Glasgow The Clue to Wound Infections Antiseptic Surgery The First Success with Antisepsis Antisepsis and Surgical Wounds Problems with Carbolic Acid Move back to Edinburgh Reaction to Surgical Antisepsis Acceptance on the European Continent Listerism in the United States The Death of President James A. Garfield Antiseptic Surgery in England Antisepsis and Asepsis in Surgery Lister’s Other Accomplishments Honors and Accolades Death of Lady Agnes Symes Lister Lister’s Later Years References Chapter 12 Paul Ehrlich and the Magic Bullet Early Influences Ehrlich’s Discovery of the Mast Cell First Meeting with Robert Koch Doctoral Dissertation: Theory and Practice of Histologic Staining The Charité Hospital in Berlin Improving the Identification of the Tubercle Bacillus Death of von Frerichs Back to Berlin Discovery of the Diphtheria Antitoxin and Serum Therapy Cellular Immunity and Humoral Immunity Standardization of Diphtheria Antitoxin The Steglitz Institute and the Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental Therapy in Frankfurt The Side Chain Theory—The First Theory of Antibody Production The Magic Bullet: The Dawn of Chemotherapy for Infectious Diseases The Nobel Prize Compound 606—Salvarsan The Public Announcement of Salvarsan at the Congress of Internal Medicine in April 1910 Troubles Introducing Salvarsan to Human Medicine Awards and Honors Last Years References Chapter 13 Lillian Wald and the Foundations of Modern Public Health Early Influences “Baptism of Fire” Wald’s Proposal: A Nursing Service The Lower East Side of New York in the 1890s The Public Health Nurse TB and the Nursing Service School Nurses Introduced in New York City Schools The House on Henry Street Columbia University and the Department of Nursing and Health Nationwide Insurance Coverage for Home-Based Care Establishment of a National Public Health Nursing Service Joint Board of Sanitary Control Wald’s Other Achievements and Activities Awards and Honors Later Years References Chapter 14 Alexander Fleming and the Discovery of Penicillin Progress in Chemotherapy of Infectious Diseases The Beginning of Sulfonamides The Beginnings of the Penicillins Alexander Fleming: Early Influences Almroth Wright and the Inoculation Department of St. Mary’s Hospital Fleming and the First World War The Discovery of Lysozyme Work on Antiseptics The Discovery of Penicillin: “That’s Funny” A Decidedly Unstable Substance First Presentation of Penicillin’s Discovery First Attempt to Purify Penicillin Prontosil: Early Work Leads to Success The Discovery of Sulfanilamide Renewal of Interest in Penicillin The Oxford Team The Isolation of Partially Purified Penicillin Penicillin Testing in Animals—Miraculous Results The First Human Trials of Penicillin The First Penicillin Patient: the Oxford Policeman Penicillin Production in the United States Large-Scale Cultivation of Penicillium Wartime Penicillin Production in the United States Penicillin and Patents Penicillin Use in England Public Awareness of Penicillin: the Fleming Myth Secrecy in Wartime England Penicillin Production during World War II on the Continent of Europe France The Netherlands Denmark Postwar Penicillin Production The Nobel Prize The Chemical Structure of Penicillin The Impact of Penicillin on Chemotherapy of Bacterial Diseases References Chapter 15 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and the Discovery of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Clues to the Etiologic Agent of AIDS Reverse Transcriptase and Retroviruses Discovery of the First Human Retrovirus—HTLV-1 Early Influences Sinoussi and the Pasteur Institute Work at the National Institutes of Health in the United States Return to France Isolation of a Retrovirus at the Pasteur Institute Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus (LAV)—The Cause of AIDS? Controversy Develops: LAV or HTLV-3? Claims against Patents Further Controversy Barré-Sinoussi and the World of AIDS Patients Barré-Sinoussi after Discovery of HIV at Pasteur Institute The Nobel Prize Cold Spring Harbor, 2019 Awards and Honors References Chapter 16 Barry Marshall and Helicobacter pylori in Peptic Ulcer Disease Causes of Peptic Ulcer Disease, circa 1980 Complications of Peptic Ulcer Disease Curved Bacteria on Gastric Biopsies Early Influences First Study on Peptic Ulcers and Gastric Bacteria Growth Characteristics of the Unidentified Curved Bacilli from the Stomach of Patients First Presentation of the Association of Helicobacter pylori and Peptic Ulcer Disease Attempt to FULFILL Koch’s Postulates Physician Self-Experimentation Natural History of H. pylori disease A Difficult Year, 1984 A Boost from an Unexpected Source The Move to the United States: Research at the University of Virginia The Tide Turns A Watershed Year, 1994 H. pylori and Gastric Cancer Infectious Agents and Other Chronic Diseases Awards and Honors The Nobel Prize Challenges Remaining Conclusions References Chapter 17 Anthony Fauci: America’s Top Infectious Disease Doctor Early Influences Fauci and the National Institutes of Health Chief Residency Breakthrough in Vasculitis Treatment Fauci and AIDS Fauci Named Director of the NIAID Opening the Door of the AIDS Activist Community Advising U.S. Presidents on Infectious Diseases Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Creation of President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) PEPFAR’s Successes A Series of New Infectious Disease Threats in the 21st Century SARS 2009 Influenza Pandemic MERS-CoV Zika Virus Outbreak Ebola Virus Epidemic COVID-19 Pandemic Fauci and the White House Coronavirus Task Force Dr. Fauci and President Trump Operation Warp Speed COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Politics of COVID-19 Development of COVID-19 Variants COVID-19 and Herd Immunity Post-COVID Condition (Long COVID) Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic Awards and Honors Dr. Fauci’s Legacy References Chapter 18 Conclusions The Development of Antibiotic Resistance The Need for a New Paradigm in Antimicrobial Treatment Threats from New or Reemerging Pathogens Strengthening Public Health The Challenge of Vaccines References Index EULA