Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks of India

This book presents mainly the geotechnical details of geomaterials (soils and rocks) found in all the 36 states and union territories of India. There are 37 chapters in this book. Chapter 1 provides an overview of geomaterials, focusing on their engineering properties as determined based on the project site investigations and laboratory/field tests; this will help readers understand the technical details explained throughout the book, with each chapter dealing with geomaterials of one state/union territory only. Each chapter, contributed by a team of authors, follows a common template with the following sections: introduction, major types of soils and rocks, properties of soils and rocks, use of soils and rocks as construction materials, foundation and other geotechnical structures, other geomaterials, natural hazards, case studies and field tests, geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks, concluding remarks and references. All the chapters cover highly practical information and technical data for application in ground infrastructure projects, including foundations of structures (buildings, towers, tanks, machines and so on), highway, railway and airport pavements, embankments, retaining structures/walls, dams, reservoirs, canals and ponds, and landfills and tunnels. These details are also highly useful for professionals dealing with mining, oil and gas projects and agricultural and aquacultural engineering projects. Although this book covers the Indian ground characteristics, the information provided can be helpful in some suitable forms to the professionals of other countries having similar ground conditions and applications. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface About the editor List of contributors 1 Introduction 1.1 Soil and rock 1.2 India and its states and union territories 1.3 Structure and use of this book 1.3.1 Contents 1.3.2 Introduction 1.3.3 Major types of soils and rocks 1.3.4 Properties of soils and rocks 1.3.5 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 1.3.6 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 1.3.7 Other geomaterials 1.3.8 Natural hazards 1.3.9 Case studies and field tests 1.3.10 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 1.3.11 Concluding remarks 1.3.12 References 1.4 Concluding remarks References 2 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Major types of soils and rocks 2.3 Properties of soils and rocks 2.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 2.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 2.6 Other geomaterials 2.7 Natural hazards 2.8 Case studies and field tests 2.9 Effects of environmental changes on soils and rocks 2.10 Concluding remarks References 3 Andhra Pradesh 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Major types of soils and rocks 3.3 Properties of soils and rocks 3.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 3.5 Foundations 3.6 Other geomaterials 3.7 Case studies and field tests 3.7.1 Case study #1: inadequate subsoil exploration 3.7.2 Case study #2: improper construction of under-reamed pile foundation 3.7.3 Case study #3: strengthening soft ground using casuarina ballies 3.8 Concluding remarks References 4 Arunachal Pradesh 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Major types of soils and rocks 4.2.1 Soils 4.2.2 Rocks 4.3 Engineering properties of soils and rocks 4.3.1 Soils 4.3.2 Rocks 4.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 4.5 Natural hazards 4.5.1 Earthquake 4.5.2 Landslides 4.5.3 Flood inundation and soil erosion 4.5.4 Siltation 4.6 Case studies and field tests 4.6.1 Slope stability 4.6.2 Squeezing of rock and cavity formation 4.7 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 5 Assam 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Major types of soils and rocks 5.3 Properties of soils and rocks 5.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 5.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 5.6 Other geomaterials 5.7 Natural hazards 5.8 Case studies and field tests 5.8.1 Building settlement 5.8.2 Slope stabilisation by soil nailing 5.8.3 Prevention of subsidence of structure by cement grouting 5.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 5.10 Concluding remarks References 6 Bihar 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Major types of soils 6.3 Properties of soils 6.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 6.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 6.6 Other geomaterials 6.7 Natural hazards 6.8 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 6.9 Concluding remarks References 7 Chandigarh 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Major types of soils and rocks 7.3 Properties of soils and rocks 7.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 7.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 7.6 Other geomaterials 7.7 Natural hazards 7.8 Case studies 7.9 Geoenvironmental impacts on soils and rocks 7.10 Concluding remarks References 8 Chhattisgarh 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Major types of soils and rocks 8.3 Properties of soils and rocks 8.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 8.4.1 Soil moorum 8.4.2 Natural stone aggregates 8.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 8.5.1 Foundation 8.5.2 Pavements 8.5.3 Embankment of the flyover approach 8.5.4 Stability of rock mass 8.6 Other geomaterials 8.6.1 Industrial wastes/by-products 8.6.2 Applications of industrial wastes/by-products 8.6.3 Properties of industrial waste/by-products 8.6.4 Problems with industrial waste/by-products 8.7 Natural hazards 8.8 Geo-environmental impact on soils and rocks 8.9 Concluding remarks References 9 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Major types of soils and rocks 9.3 Properties of soils and rocks 9.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 9.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 9.6 Natural hazards 9.7 Case study and field tests 9.8 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 9.9 Concluding remarks References 10 Delhi 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Major types of soils and rocks 10.3 Properties of soils and rocks 10.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 10.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 10.6 Other geomaterials 10.7 Natural hazards 10.8 Case studies 10.9 Geoenvironmental concerns on soils and rocks 10.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 11 Goa 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Major types of soils and rocks 11.3 Properties of soils and rocks 11.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 11.4.1 Lateritic soil 11.4.2 Sand 11.4.3 Laterite stones 11.4.4 Basalt 11.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 11.5.1 Tunnels 11.5.2 Dams 11.5.2.1 Salaulim dam 11.5.2.2 Anjunem dam 11.6 Other geomaterials 11.7 Natural hazards 11.7.1 Seismic events 11.7.2 Landslides 11.7.2.1 Landslide at Ambaji, Fatorda 11.7.2.2 Landslide at Porvorim Goa 11.7.2.3 Landslide at Chorla Ghat 11.8 Case studies and field tests 11.8.1 Geotechnical properties of different coloured lateritic soils 11.8.2 Typical lateritic soft clay site in Goa 11.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 11.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 12 Gujarat 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Major types of soils and rocks 12.2.1 South Gujarat region 12.2.2 Central Gujarat region 12.2.3 Saurashtra and Kutch region 12.2.4 North Gujarat region 12.3 Properties of soils and rocks 12.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 12.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 12.6 Natural hazards 12.6.1 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake 12.6.2 1956 Anjar earthquake 12.6.3 2001 Bhuj earthquake 12.7 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 12.8 Case studies and field tests 12.9 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 13 Haryana 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Geology of the state 13.3 Local soil 13.3.1 Development of geotechnical database 13.3.2 Local subsoil conditions 13.3.3 Properties of Yamuna sands 13.4 Materials/waste materials for geotechnical reuse 13.5 Earthquake hazard 13.5.1 Earthquake damage report of Haryana 13.5.2 Earthquake hazard assessment 13.5.2.1 Peak ground acceleration (PGA) 13.5.2.2 Response spectrum 13.6 Cyclic behaviour of Yamuna sands 13.6.1 Shear modulus degradation (G/G[sub(max-γ)]) and damping ratio (D-γ) curves 13.6.1.1 Shear modulus degradation curves 13.6.1.2 Damping ratio curves 13.6.2 Liquefaction potential based on cyclic triaxial tests 13.7 Case studies 13.7.1 Deformation behaviour of limestone under triaxial compression 13.7.1.1 Test procedure 13.7.1.2 Test results 13.7.2 Development of geotechnical correlations 13.7.3 Geotechnical failure – A case study of the forensic geotechnical investigation of building distress 13.7.3.1 Building inspection 13.7.3.2 Distress analysis 13.7.3.3 Preliminary investigation 13.7.3.4 Crack analysis 13.7.3.5 Field and laboratory tests 13.8 Concluding remarks References 14 Himachal Pradesh 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Major types of soils, rocks and their properties 14.3 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 14.4 Natural hazards 14.5 Concluding remarks References 15 Jammu and Kashmir 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Major types of soils and rocks 15.2.1 Rocks 15.2.2 Soils 15.3 Properties of soils and rocks 15.3.1 Kashmir Valley 15.3.2 Pir Panjal 15.3.3 Tawi Valley (Jammu hills and plains) 15.3.4 Chenab Valley 15.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 15.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 15.6 Other geomaterials 15.7 Natural hazards 15.8 Case studies and field tests 15.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 15.10 Concluding remarks References 16 Jharkhand 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Major types of soils and rocks 16.3 Properties of soils and rocks 16.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 16.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 16.6 Other geomaterials 16.7 Natural hazards 16.8 Case studies and field tests 16.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 16.10 Concluding remarks References 17 Karnataka 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Major types of soils and rocks 17.3 Properties of soils and rocks 17.3.1 Properties of residual deposits – overburden (south interior region, e.g., Bangalore) 17.3.2 Properties of residual deposits – weathered rock/refusal stratum (south interior region, e.g., Bangalore) 17.3.3 Properties of residual deposits – bedrock (south interior region, e.g., Bangalore) 17.3.4 Properties of black cotton soil (expansive clay) 17.3.5 Properties of lithomargic clay/shedi 17.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 17.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 17.6 Other geomaterials 17.7 Natural hazards 17.8 Case studies and field tests 17.9 Geo-environmental impacts on soils and rocks 17.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 18 Kerala 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Major types of soils and rocks and their properties 18.2.1 Soils 18.2.2 Rocks 18.3 Geotechnical properties of soils and rocks 18.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 18.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 18.6 Natural hazards 18.6.1 Floods 18.6.2 Landslides 18.6.3 Coastal erosion 18.6.4 Earthquakes 18.6.5 Reasons and remedies for hazards 18.7 Case study 18.8 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 18.9 Concluding remarks References 19 Ladakh 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Physiography 19.3 Geology 19.4 Land cover land use 19.5 Major types of soils and rocks 19.6 Construction materials 19.6.1 Building materials and construction techniques 19.6.2 Other geomaterials 19.7 Natural hazards 19.7.1 Potential glacial outburst 19.7.2 Leh cloud burst (2010) 19.8 Conclusions References 20 Lakshadweep 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Major types of soils and rocks 20.3 Properties of soils and rocks 20.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 20.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 20.6 Other geomaterials 20.7 Natural hazards 20.7.1 Earthquakes 20.7.2 Cyclones and storms 20.7.3 Inundation of seawater 20.7.4 Sea-level rise 20.7.5 Coastal erosion 20.8 Case study 20.8.1 Field exploration and methodology 20.8.2 General geological information 20.8.3 Evaluation of stratum 20.8.4 Design consideration for the foundation system 20.9 Geoenvironmental concerns on soils and rocks 20.10 Concluding remarks References 21 Madhya Pradesh 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Major types of soils and rocks 21.3 Properties of soils and rocks 21.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 21.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 21.6 Natural hazards 21.7 Case studies and field tests 21.8 Effects of environmental changes on soils and rocks 21.9 Concluding remarks References 22 Maharashtra 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Major types of soils and rocks 22.2.1 Soils in Konkan 22.2.1.1 Soils in the Western Ghats 22.2.1.2 Soils in Upper Maharashtra 22.2.1.3 Deccan Trap 22.2.1.4 Alluvial soil 22.2.1.5 Red and yellowish soil 22.2.1.6 Lateritic soils 22.2.1.7 Black soil 22.2.1.8 Marine clay 22.2.1.9 Rock formation 22.2.2 Mineral resources 22.3 Properties of soils and rocks 22.4 Construction materials 22.5 Foundations and geotechnical structures 22.6 Other geomaterials 22.7 Natural hazards 22.8 Case studies and field tests 22.9 Effects of environmental changes on soils 22.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 23 Manipur 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Major types of soils and rocks 23.3 Properties of soils and rocks 23.4 Construction materials 23.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 23.6 Other geomaterials 23.7 Natural hazards 23.7.1 Earthquakes 23.7.2 Landslides 23.8 Case studies 23.9 Effects of environmental changes on soils and rocks 23.10 Concluding remarks References 24 Meghalaya 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Major types of soils and rocks 24.3 Properties of soils and rocks 24.4 Construction materials 24.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 24.6 Other geomaterials 24.7 Natural hazards 24.8 Case studies and field tests 24.8.1 Case study #1 24.8.2 Case study #2 24.9 Geo-environmental impact on soils and rocks 24.10 Concluding remarks References 25 Mizoram 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Major types of soils and rocks 25.3 Properties of soils and rocks 25.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 25.5 Natural hazards 25.6 Concluding remarks References 26 Nagaland 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Major types of soils and rocks 26.3 Properties of soils and rocks 26.4 Construction materials 26.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 26.6 Other geomaterials 26.7 Natural geohazards 26.7.1 Landslides 26.7.2 Seismicity 26.8 Case study and field tests 26.8.1 Geology of Kohima 26.8.2 Geology of Dimapur 26.9 Effect of environmental changes on soils and rocks 26.10 Concluding remarks References 27 Odisha 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Major types of soils and rocks 27.3 Properties of soils and rocks 27.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 27.5 Other geomaterials 27.6 Natural hazards 27.7 Concluding remarks References 28 Puducherry 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Major types of soils and rocks with their properties 28.3 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 28.4 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 28.5 Natural hazards 28.6 Concluding remarks 29 Punjab 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Major types of soils and rocks 29.2.1 Bet soils 29.2.2 Loamy soils 29.2.3 Sandy soils 29.2.4 Desert soils 29.2.5 Kandi soils 29.2.6 Forest soils 29.3 Properties of soils and rocks 29.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 29.4.1 Fine sand 29.4.2 Coarse sand 29.4.3 Coarse aggregates 29.4.4 Fine-grained soil 29.4.5 Granular subbase material 29.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 29.6 Other Geomaterials 29.6.1 Fly and pond ashes 29.6.2 Rice husk ash 29.7 Natural hazards 29.8 Case studies and field tests 29.8.1 Pavement failure 29.8.2 Cracking and uneven settlements in buildings 29.8.3 Tilting of an overhead service reservoir 29.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 29.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgement References 30 Rajasthan 30.1 Introduction 30.1.1 Western desert region 30.1.2 Aravali hill region 30.1.3 Eastern plain region 30.1.4 Southeast plateau 30.2 Major types of soils and rocks 30.2.1 Desert soils 30.2.2 Dune soils 30.2.3 Brown soils 30.2.4 Black cotton soils 30.2.5 Sierozemics 30.2.6 Red soils 30.2.7 Hill soils 30.2.8 Saline-sodic soils 30.3 Properties of soils and rocks 30.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 30.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 30.6 Other geomaterials 30.7 Natural hazards 30.8 Case study 30.9 Geoenvironmental impacts on soils and rocks 30.10 Concluding remarks References 31 Sikkim 31.1 Introduction 31.1.1 Physiography of Sikkim 31.1.2 Physical features 31.2 Major types of soils and rocks 31.2.1 Types of soils 31.2.2 Types of rocks 31.3 Properties of soils and rocks 31.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 31.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 31.5.1 Dams and roads 31.5.2 Vernacular housing systems 31.5.3 Performance of residential, commercial and Government buildings 31.5.4 Geotechnical aspects of damages 31.5.4.1 Failure of retaining walls 31.5.4.2 Ground failure and damage to roads 31.5.4.3 Foundation failures 31.5.5 Structural aspects of damages 31.6 Other geomaterials 31.7 Natural hazards 31.7.1 Seismicity aspects of Sikkim 31.7.2 Landslides 31.8 Concluding remarks Acknowledgement References 32 Tamil Nadu 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Major types of soil and rock 32.2.1 Major types of soil 32.2.1.1 Red soils 32.2.1.2 Black cotton soils 32.2.1.3 Laterites and lateritic soils 32.2.1.4 Alluvial soils 32.2.1.5 Peat and marshy soils 32.2.2 Major types of rock 32.2.2.1 The Archaean rocks 32.2.2.2 Paleozoic sediments 32.2.2.3 Mesozoic rocks 32.2.2.4 Cenozoic 32.3 Properties of soils and rocks 32.3.1 Soil properties 32.3.2 Properties of rock 32.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 32.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 32.6 Other geomaterials 32.6.1 Fly ash 32.6.2 Manufactured sand 32.6.3 Vermiculite 32.7 Natural hazards 32.7.1 Cyclone 32.7.2 Tsunami 32.7.3 Landslides 32.7.4 Urban flooding 32.8 Case studies and field tests 32.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 32.10 Concluding remarks References 33 Telangana 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Major soils and rock types 33.3 Properties of soils and rocks 33.4 Other construction materials 33.4.1 Stone dust 33.4.2 Construction and demolition waste 33.4.3 Rice husk ash 33.4.4 Pond ash 33.4.5 Limestone slabs 33.5 Foundations of a few important structures 33.5.1 Kaleswaram project 33.5.2 Thousand pillars temple 33.5.3 Ramappa temple (built with floating bricks) 33.6 Natural hazards 33.7 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 34 Tripura 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Soil types 34.2.1 Reddish yellow brown sandy soil 34.2.2 Red loam and sandy loam 34.2.3 Older alluvial soil 34.2.4 Younger alluvial soil 34.2.5 Lateritic soil 34.3 Optimising land use 34.4 Rock formations 34.5 Properties of soils and rocks 34.6 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 34.6.1 Brick manufacturing 34.6.2 Building materials 34.7 Foundations for houses and geotechnical structures 34.8 Natural hazards 34.8.1 Earthquakes 34.8.1.1 Tectonic movement 34.8.1.2 Neogene movement 34.8.1.3 Quaternary movements 34.8.1.4 Contemporary movements 34.8.2 Floods 34.8.3 Landslides 34.8.4 Cyclones 34.9 Case study on riverbank erosion 34.10 Geoenvironmental impact 34.10.1 Impact of river basin environmental changes 34.10.2 Impact on agricultural lands 34.10.3 Impact due to road construction 34.10.4 Impact due to sand mining 34.10.5 Impact of bridge piers on the Haora river 34.11 Concluding remarks Acknowledgement References 35 Uttarakhand 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Major types of soils and rocks 35.2.1 Lesser Himalaya 35.2.2 Outer Himalayan foothill zone 35.3 Properties of soils and rocks 35.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 35.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 35.6 Natural hazards 35.6.1 Earthquakes 35.6.2 Landslides 35.6.3 Flooding 35.7 Field tests 35.8 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 35.9 Concluding remarks References 36 Uttar Pradesh 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Soil classifications 36.2.1 Siwalik hills and Terai region 36.2.2 Gangetic plains 36.2.3 Vindhyas range and plateau region 36.3 Optimising land use 36.4 Rock formations 36.4.1 Mineral resources 36.4.2 Aquifer systems 36.5 Properties of soils and rocks 36.5.1 Variation of N-value with depth 36.6 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 36.6.1 Fire clays 36.6.2 Sand 36.6.3 Morrum 36.6.4 Limestone, shale and gypsum 36.6.5 SMS grade dolomite 36.6.6 Pyrophyllite 36.7 Other geomaterials 36.7.1 Fly ash 36.7.2 Mine wastes 36.7.3 Clay-rich tailings 36.7.4 Red mud 36.7.5 Waste rock 36.8 Foundations and geotechnical structures 36.9 Natural hazards 36.9.1 Tectonic movement 36.9.2 Floods 36.10 Case study 36.10.1 Field investigations 36.10.2 Laboratory investigations 36.10.3 Design criteria 36.10.4 Allowable soil pressure 36.10.5 Shear failure consideration 36.10.6 Settlement criterion 36.10.7 Liquefaction analysis 36.10.8 Recommendations 36.11 Concluding remarks Acknowledgement References 37 West Bengal 37.1 Introduction 37.1.1 Northern mountain region 37.1.2 Western plateau fringe 37.1.3 Northern plains 37.1.4 Terai region 37.1.5 Rarh region 37.1.6 Sundarbans delta 37.1.7 Coastal fringe 37.2 Major types of soils and rocks 37.2.1 Geology of the Darjeeling Himalayas 37.2.2 Bengal basin 37.3 Properties of soils and rocks 37.3.1 Alluvial soils 37.3.2 Organic soils 37.3.3 Laterite and expansive soils 37.3.4 Marine deposits 37.3.5 Boulder deposits 37.4 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials 37.5 Foundations and other geotechnical structures 37.6 Other geomaterials 37.7 Natural hazards 37.7.1 Natural hazards in hilly terrain 37.7.2 Natural hazards within the Bengal basin 37.8 Case studies and field tests 37.9 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks 37.10 Concluding remarks Acknowledgement References Index