Geoinformatics

Cover; Preface; Acknowledgement; Contents; Section I: Geoinformatics; Chapter 1: Introduction; 1.0 General; 1.1 Mutual Relationship of Components of Geoinformatics; Section II: Plane Surveying; Chapter 2: Introduction and Basic Concepts; 2.0 Introduction; 2.1 Definition and Principle of Surveying; 2.1.1 Definition of Surveying; 2.1.2 Principle of Surveying; 2.2 Definitions of Some Basic Terms; 2.3 Concept of Errors in Surveying; 2.3.1 Classification of Errors; 2.3.2 Sources of Errors; 2.3.3 Propagation of Errors; Chapter 3: Horizontal Distance Measurement; 3.0 Introduction. 3.1 Methods of Distance Measurements3.1.1 Distance Measurements by Direct Method; 3.1.2 Distance Measurements by Indirect Methods; 3.1.3 Distance Measurements with EDM; Chapter 4: Angle and Direction Measurement; 4.0 Introduction; 4.1 Classification of Angles and Directions; 4.1.1 Bearings; 4.1.2 Azimuths; 4.1.3 Deflection Angles; 4.1.4 Angles to the Right; 4.1.5 Interior Angles; 4.2 Theodolite; 4.2.1 Main Parts of a Theodolite; 4.2.2 Definitions of Some Technical Terms; 4.2.3 Geometry of Theodolite; 4.2.4 Adjustments of a Theodolite; 4.2.5 Horizontal Angle Measurement with a Theodolite. 4.2.6 Vertical Angle Measurement with a Theodolite4.2.7 Miscellaneous Field Operations with a Theodolite; 4.2.8 Errors in Theodolite Measurements; 4.3 Magnetic Compass; 4.3.1 Magnetic Declination; 4.3.2 Local Attraction; Chapter 5: Vertical Distance Measurements; 5.0 Introduction; 5.1 Methods of Levelling; 5.1.1 Direct Differential Levelling; 5.1.2 Indirect or Trigonometric Levelling; 5.1.3 Barometric Levelling; Chapter 6: Contouring; 6.0 Introduction; 6.1 Definitions; 6.2 Concept of Contours and Contour Gradient; 6.3 Characteristics of Contours; 6.4 Methods of Contouring; 6.4.1 Direct Method. 6.4.2 Indirect Method6.5 Uses of Contours; Chapter 7: Plane-table Surveying; 7.0 Introduction; 7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages; 7.2 Principle of Plane Tabling; 7.3 Plane Table and Accessories; 7.4 Drawing Paper; 7.5 Basic Definitions; 7.6 Setting up the Plane Table; 7.7 Orienting the Plane Table; 7.8 Plane Tabling Methods; 7.8.1 Radiation; 7.8.2 Intersection; 7.8.3 Traversing; 7.8.4 Resection; 7.9 Errors in Plane Tabling; Chapter 8: Control Surveys; 8.0 Introduction; 8.1 Definitions; 8.2 Types of Traverses; 8.2.1 Open Traverse; 8.2.2 Closed Traverse; 8.3 Classification of Traverse. 8.3.1 Based on Methods of Measurement of Horizontal Angles8.3.2 Based on Instruments Employed; 8.4 Traverse Procedure; 8.5 Computation of Coordinates; 8.6 Balancing the Traverse; 8.6.1 Bowditch's Method; 8.6.2 Graphical Method; Section III: Photogrammetry; Chapter 9: Photogrammetry; 9.0 Introduction; 9.1 Types of Photogrammetry; 9.2 Applications of Photogrammetry; 9.3 Merits and Demerits of Photogrammetry; 9.4 Limitation of Photogrammetry in Land Surveying; Chapter 10: Properties of Aerial Photography; 10.0 Introduction; 10.1 Aerial Photographs; 10.2 Aerial Photogrammetry. Cover......Page 1 Preface......Page 6 Acknowledgement......Page 8 Contents......Page 10 Section I: Geoinformatics......Page 18 1.1 Mutual Relationship of Components of Geoinformatics......Page 20 Section II: Plane Surveying......Page 22 2.1.2 Principle of Surveying......Page 24 2.2 Definitions of Some Basic Terms......Page 25 2.3 Concept of Errors in Surveying......Page 26 2.3.1 Classification of Errors......Page 27 2.3.3 Propagation of Errors......Page 28 3.1.1 Distance Measurements by Direct Method......Page 29 3.1.2 Distance Measurements by Indirect Methods......Page 31 3.1.3 Distance Measurements with EDM......Page 35 4.1 Classification of Angles and Directions......Page 36 4.1.2 Azimuths......Page 37 4.1.3 Deflection Angles......Page 38 4.2.1 Main Parts of a Theodolite......Page 39 4.2.2 Definitions of Some Technical Terms......Page 40 4.2.3 Geometry of Theodolite......Page 41 4.2.5 Horizontal Angle Measurement with a Theodolite......Page 42 4.2.7 Miscellaneous Field Operations with a Theodolite......Page 44 4.3 Magnetic Compass......Page 45 4.3.2 Local Attraction......Page 46 5.1.1 Direct Differential Levelling......Page 47 5.1.2 Indirect or Trigonometric Levelling......Page 52 5.1.3 Barometric Levelling......Page 53 6.2 Concept of Contours and Contour Gradient......Page 54 6.3 Characteristics of Contours......Page 56 6.4.2 Indirect Method......Page 58 6.5 Uses of Contours......Page 59 7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 60 7.3 Plane Table and Accessories......Page 61 7.6 Setting up the Plane Table......Page 63 7.7 Orienting the Plane Table......Page 64 7.8.2 Intersection......Page 66 7.8.4 Resection......Page 67 7.9 Errors in Plane Tabling......Page 71 8.2 Types of Traverses......Page 72 8.2.2 Closed Traverse......Page 73 8.4 Traverse Procedure......Page 74 8.5 Computation of Coordinates......Page 75 8.6.1 Bowditch’s Method......Page 77 8.6.2 Graphical Method......Page 78 Section III: Photogrammetry......Page 80 9.1 Types of Photogrammetry......Page 82 9.3 Merits and Demerits of Photogrammetry......Page 83 9.4 Limitation of Photogrammetry in Land Surveying......Page 84 10.1 Aerial Photographs......Page 85 10.2.1 Photocoordinate System......Page 88 10.2.2 Definitions of Technical Terms......Page 90 10.2.4 Scale of a Vertical Photograph......Page 91 10.2.5 Ground Coordinates from a Vertical Photograph......Page 93 10.2.6 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph......Page 94 10.3.1 Overlaps......Page 95 10.3.2 Computation of Flight Plan......Page 97 11.1 Stereoscopic Vision and Depth Perception......Page 100 11.2 Stereoscopic Viewing of Photographs......Page 101 11.3 Parallax in Stereoscopic Views......Page 103 11.3.3 Measurement of Parallax......Page 104 11.3.4 Concept of Floating Mark in Measurement of Parallax......Page 105 11.4 Aerial Photointerpretation......Page 106 Section IV: Remote Sensing......Page 108 12.1 Principle of Remote Sensing......Page 110 12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Remote Sensing......Page 111 12.4 Applications of Remote Sensing......Page 112 13.1 Electromagnetic Energy......Page 113 13.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum and its Characteristics......Page 114 13.3 Electromagnetic Energy Interaction......Page 115 13.4 Resolution......Page 117 13.5 Image Histogram......Page 118 13.6 Pure and Mixed Pixels......Page 119 14.1 Broad Classifications of Sensors and Platforms......Page 121 14.2.1 Land Observation Satellites and Sensors......Page 122 14.2.2 High Resolution Sensors......Page 123 14.2.4 Radarsat-1......Page 124 14.2.5 Weather Satellites......Page 125 15.1 Data Reception, Transmission, and Processing......Page 127 15.2.1 Digital Data......Page 128 15.2.2 Tape Format......Page 129 15.2.3 Data Products......Page 131 16.1 Image Interpretation......Page 132 16.1.2 Image Characteristics......Page 133 16.1.5 Image Interpretation Keys......Page 134 16.2 Digital Image Processing (DIP)......Page 135 16.2.3 Image Transformation......Page 136 16.2.4 Image Classification......Page 137 16.2.6 Data Merging and GIS Integration......Page 139 16.3.3 Panchromatic Image......Page 140 16.3.4 Multispectral Image......Page 141 16.3.5 Colour Composite Image......Page 142 17.1 More about The Application of Remote Sensing Data......Page 146 17.2 Land Use and Land Cover Mapping......Page 147 17.3 Ground Water Mapping......Page 148 17.4 Disaster Management......Page 150 Section V: Geographic Information System......Page 152 18.1 Definition of GIS......Page 154 18.2 Components of GIS......Page 155 18.3 Understanding the GIS......Page 156 19.1 Input Data and Sources......Page 157 19.2.7 Attribute Data Tagging......Page 158 19.3 Layer Concept of Data Storage in GIS......Page 159 19.5 Georeferencing of GIS Data......Page 160 19.7 Spatial Data Models and Structure......Page 161 19.8 GIS Database and Database Management System......Page 162 19.9 Topology......Page 163 19.10 Types of Output Products......Page 165 19.11 Spatial Data Analysis......Page 166 20.1 Problem Identification......Page 167 20.4 Identifying Implementation Problem......Page 168 20.6 Project Evaluation......Page 169 20.7.1 Site Suitability for Urban Planning......Page 170 20.7.2 Road Accident Analysis......Page 171 Section VI: Global Positioning System......Page 174 21.2 Advantages of GPS over Traditional Surveying......Page 176 21.4 GPS a New Utility......Page 177 22.1 Principles of GPS Working......Page 178 22.1.2 Measuring Distance from a Satellite......Page 179 22.1.3 Atomic Clock and Determination of Position......Page 181 23.0 Introduction......Page 182 23.1 Space Segment......Page 183 23.1.2 Satellite Signals......Page 184 23.2 Control Segment......Page 185 23.2.1 Master Control Station......Page 186 23.3 User Segment......Page 187 24.1 GPS Receivers and its Features......Page 188 24.1.1 Surveying Receivers......Page 189 24.1.2 Receivers by Method of Operation......Page 190 24.2 GPS Errors......Page 191 25.2 GPS Surveying Techniques......Page 192 25.2.1 Rapid-static GPS Surveying......Page 193 25.2.2 Stop-and-Go GPS Surveying......Page 194 25.2.3 Kinematic GPS Surveying......Page 195 25.3 Real-time GPS Surveying and Mapping Techniques......Page 196 25.3.2 RTK-GPS Technique......Page 197 Index......Page 200