Genetic Engineering, Biofertilisation, Soil Quality and Organic Farming (Sustainable Agriculture Reviews Book 4)

Annotation Sustainable agriculture is a rapidly growing field aiming at producing food and energy in a sustainable way for humans and their children. Sustainable agriculture is a discipline that addresses current issues such as climate change, increasing food and fuel prices, poor-nation starvation, rich-nation obesity, water pollution, soil erosion, fertility loss, pest control, and biodiversity depletion. Novel, environmentally-friendly solutions are proposed based on integrated knowledge from sciences as diverse as agronomy, soil science, molecular biology, chemistry, toxicology, ecology, economy, and social sciences. Indeed, sustainable agriculture decipher mechanisms of processes that occur from the molecular level to the farming system to the global level at time scales ranging from seconds to centuries. For that, scientists use the system approach that involves studying components and interactions of a whole system to address scientific, economic and social issues. In that respect, sustainable agriculture is not a classical, narrow science. Instead of solving problems using the classical painkiller approach that treats only negative impacts, sustainable agriculture treats problem sources. Because most actual society issues are now intertwined, global, and fast-developing, sustainable agriculture will bring solutions to build a safer world. This book series gathers review articles that analyze current agricultural issues and knowledge, then propose alternative solutions. It will therefore help all scientists, decision-makers, professors, farmers and politicians who wish to build a safe agriculture, energy and food system for future generations Cover Page 1 Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 2 Other books by Dr. Eric Lichtfouse 3 Title: Genetic Engineering, Biofertilisation, Soil Quality and Organic Farming 4 ISBN 9048187400 5 Contents 6 Chapter 1: Avidin and Plant Biotechnology to Control Pests 8 1.1 Introduction 9 1.2 Avidin as a Tool to Protect Plants Against Pests 10 1.2.1 The Physiological Functions and Structures of Biotin and Avidin 10 1.2.2 Avidin as a Pesticide in Food 11 1.2.3 Transgenic Expression of Avidin in Plants 14 1.2.4 Targeted Vacuolar Expression of Avidin Reduces Toxicity to Plants 15 1.2.5 Transgenic Avidin in Combination with Other Pesticidal Transgenes 17 1.3 Commonly Used Methods to Determine Avidin in Transgenic Plants 17 1.3.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Southern Blotting 17 1.3.2 ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay) 18 1.3.3 SDS-PAGE (Sodium Dodecylsulphate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis) and Western Blotting 18 1.3.4 Semiautomatic Capillary Electrophoresis 20 1.3.5 Fluorescence Polarisation (FP) 21 1.3.6 Electrochemical Methods 21 1.3.7 Tissue Printing 22 1.3.8 Mortality and Morbidity Assay 24 References 24 Chapter 2: Cover Crops for Sustainable Agrosystems in the Americas 30 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Historic Perspective 32 2.3 Services and Benefits 34 2.3.1 Soil Organic Matter 34 2.3.2 Physical Functions 37 2.3.3 Soil Fertility 38 2.3.4 Pest Management 39 2.3.4.1 Soil Ecology 39 2.3.4.2 Diseases 40 2.3.4.3 Insects 41 2.3.4.4 Nematodes 41 2.3.4.5 Weeds 42 2.3.5 Food and Forage Production 44 2.3.6 Economic Benefits 44 2.3.7 Ecological Services 46 2.4 Selection 47 2.4.1 Adaptation 48 2.4.2 Vigor and Reproduction 49 2.4.3 Functionality and Performance 49 2.5 Management 50 2.5.1 Rotation 50 2.5.2 Biomass Production and Residue Quality 51 2.5.3 Cover-Crop Termination and Residue Management 52 2.5.4 Tillage 52 2.5.5 Synchronization 53 2.6 Limitations and Challenges 54 2.6.1 Information and Technology Transfer 54 2.6.2 Resource Management 55 2.6.3 Socioeconomic Constraints 56 2.7 Conclusion 57 References 58 Chapter 3: Cover Crops in Agrosystems: Innovations and Applications 66 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 A Framework for Innovation of Cover-Crop-Based Systems 68 3.2.1 Characterization and Diagnosis of Constraints 70 3.2.1.1 Biophysical Constraints 70 3.2.1.2 Socioeconomic Constraints 71 3.2.1.3 Information and Technology Constraints 72 3.2.2 System Analysis 73 3.2.3 Exploration of Alternative Systems 75 3.2.4 Design or Selection of a System 78 3.2.4.1 Technology Development and Adaptation 78 3.2.4.2 Approaches for Technology Transfer 79 3.2.4.3 Sustainability of Technology Adoption 83 3.3 Innovations in Cover-Crop-Based Systems in Case Study Regions 83 3.3.1 Florida 84 3.3.1.1 Biophysical Production Environment 84 3.3.1.2 Characterization and Diagnosis of Constraints 84 3.3.1.3 System Analysis and Exploration of Alternative Systems 85 Use of Cover Crops for Weed Suppression in Orchard Systems 85 Annual Cover Crops as a Green Manure in Vegetable Crops 86 3.3.1.4 Technology Adoption 88 3.3.2 Brazil 89 3.3.2.1 Biophysical Production Environment 89 3.3.2.2 Characterization and Diagnosis of Constraints 90 3.3.2.3 System Analysis and Exploration of Alternative Systems 90 3.3.2.4 Technology Adoption 92 3.3.2.5 Innovations in Cover-Crop-Based Conservation Tillage Systems in Santa Catarina 92 3.3.3 Uruguay 94 3.3.3.1 Biophysical Environment 94 3.3.3.2 Characterization and Diagnosis of Constraints 94 3.3.3.3 System Analysis and Exploration of Alternative Systems 95 3.3.4 Interpretive Summary of Case Studies 96 3.4 Conclusion 98 References 98 Chapter 4: Improving Bioavailability of Phosphate Rock for Organic Farming 106 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Direct Application of Phosphate Rock 109 4.3 Improving P Utilization from Phosphate Rock 110 4.3.1 Composting 113 4.4 Composting Conditions 115 4.5 Forms of P Present in Compost 118 4.6 Evidence of Utilization 119 4.7 Future Research Emphasis 120 References 120 Chapter 5: Mixed Cropping and Suppression of Soilborne Diseases 126 5.1 Introduction 127 5.2 Design of Cropping Systems to Manage Soilborne Diseases 128 5.2.1 Successive Cultivation of a Single Crop 129 5.2.2 Crop Rotation 130 5.2.3 Mixed-Cropping Systems 131 5.3 Disease Reduction in Mixed-Cropping Systems 137 5.3.1 Host Dilution 145 5.3.2 Allelopathy 146 5.3.3 Microbial Antagonists 147 5.3.4 Microclimate 149 5.3.5 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) and Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) 149 5.3.6 Nutrients and Disease Development 150 5.4 Similarities and Differences Between Disease-Suppressive Mechanisms in the Different Cropping Systems 150 5.5 Practical Feasibility of Mixed Cropping 151 5.6 Conclusion 152 References 153 Chapter 6: Decreasing Nitrate Leaching in Vegetable Crops with Better N Management 154 6.1 Introduction 155 6.2 Fertiliser Management in Vegetable Crops 157 6.2.1 N Balance 158 6.2.1.1 Total Crop N Demand 159 6.2.1.2 N Supply from Soil 160 6.2.1.3 N Supply from Irrigation and Rainfall 162 6.2.1.4 N Recovery 162 6.2.1.5 Perspectives 164 6.3 Methodologies and Strategies for Improved N Fertilisation 165 6.3.1 Methods Based on Soil Mineral N Content 165 6.3.2 Methods Based on Evaluation of the Crop Nutritional Status 168 6.4 Nutrient Modelling and System Analysis 170 6.5 Agronomic Options in N-Fertilizer Management 174 6.5.1 Localised Fertilisation 175 6.5.2 Fertigation Techniques 176 6.5.3 Slow-Release Fertilisers 178 6.5.4 Nitrification Inhibitors 178 6.5.5 Intercropping 178 6.5.6 Mulching 179 6.5.7 Cover Crops 179 6.5.8 Cultivar Nitrogen Efficiency 180 6.6 N-Leaching Assessment 181 6.7 Research and Technology Transfer in European Union: Case Studies 181 6.7.1 Italy 182 6.7.2 Spain 184 6.7.3 France 189 6.7.4 The Netherlands 191 6.7.5 Final Considerations 193 6.8 Conclusion 194 References 195 Chapter 7: Manure Spills and Remediation Methods to Improve Water Quality 208 7.1 Introduction 209 7.2 Causes of Manure Spills 210 7.3 The Impact of Manure Spills 213 7.4 Current Manure Spill Remediation Methods 215 7.5 Alternative Sediment Amendments 216 7.6 Conclusion 218 References 219 Chapter 8: Cropping Systems Management, Soil Microbial Communities, and Soil Biological Fertility 224 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Soil Microbiological Diversity in Agroecosystems 226 8.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Agroecosystems 228 8.4 Management Practices Affecting Soil Microbiological Diversity 228 8.4.1 Tillage 231 8.4.2 Crop Choice and Rotation 232 8.4.3 Chemical Inputs 234 8.5 Organic and Conventional Cropping Systems 236 8.6 Cropping Systems Management and Microbial Communities 237 8.7 Interactions and the Relative Importance of Management Practices 239 8.8 The Management of Soil Biological Fertility 241 8.9 Conclusion 242 References 243 Chapter 9: Cyanobacterial Reclamation of Salt-Affected Soil 250 9.1 Introduction 252 9.2 Cyanobacterial Distribution in Salt-Affected Ecosystems 253 9.3 Uptake of Na+ and Ca2+ Salts by Cyanobacteria 255 9.3.1 Na+ Uptake 255 9.3.2 Ca2+ Uptake 256 9.4 Mechanisms of Salt Tolerance in Cyanobacteria 257 9.4.1 Role of Stress-Responsive Proteins 258 9.4.2 Restricted Entry of Na+ 259 9.4.2.1 Polysaccharides 259 9.4.3 Na+ Efflux 259 9.4.4 Na+-Dependent K+ Uptake in Prokaryotes 260 9.4.5 Role of Compatible Solutes and Lipids in Salt Tolerance 261 9.4.6 Enhancement of Cyanobacterial Salt Tolerance by Combined Nitrogen 262 9.5 Influence of Cyanobacterial Application on Salinity Related Soil Properties 262 9.5.1 Soil pH 263 9.5.2 Electrical Conductivity 263 9.5.3 Exchangeable Sodium 264 9.5.4 Sodium Absorption Ratio and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage 264 9.6 Improvement of Soil Properties 264 9.6.1 Soil Structure 264 9.6.2 Nutrient Content 265 9.7 Crop Response in Saline–Alkaline and Sodic Soils 266 9.8 Crop Yield 266 9.9 Residual Effect of Cyanobacterial Application in Crop Field 268 9.10 Technology for Soil Health Improvement 269 9.11 Amelioration of Saline Soils Using Halotolerant Nitrogen-Fixing Cyanobacteria 270 9.12 Conclusion 270 References 272 Chapter 10: Measuring Environmental Sustainability of Intensive Poultry-Rearing System 284 10.1 Introduction 285 10.2 The Intensive Poultry-Rearing System 286 10.3 The Methods 288 10.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment 288 10.3.1.1 Goal and Scope Definition 289 10.3.1.2 Life Cycle Inventory 290 10.3.1.3 Life Cycle Assessment 290 10.3.1.4 Life Cycle Interpretation 291 10.3.2 Ecological Footprint Analysis 292 10.3.3 Emergy Evaluation 293 10.4 Results 295 10.4.1 Life Cycle Assessment 295 10.4.2 Ecological Footprint 297 10.4.3 Emergy Analysis 301 10.5 Discussion 304 10.5.1 Representativeness 305 10.5.2 Verifiability 309 10.5.3 Reproducibility 310 10.5.4 Comprehensibility 310 10.6 Conclusion 311 References 313 Chapter 11: Compost Use in Organic Farming 318 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 Beneficial Effects of Compost Use 320 11.2.1 Soil Organic Matter 320 11.2.1.1 Humus Content 322 11.2.1.2 Humus Composition, Soil Microbiology, and Soil Fauna 324 11.2.1.3 Cation Exchange Capacity 324 11.2.2 Soil pH 325 11.2.3 Nitrogen 325 11.2.3.1 N Mineralization 325 11.2.3.2 Nitrogen-Leaching 327 11.2.4 Phosphorus 328 11.2.5 Potassium 329 11.2.6 Micronutrients 330 11.2.7 Soil Structure 332 11.2.7.1 Aggregate Stability 332 11.2.7.2 Porosity 333 11.2.7.3 Soil Water Availability 334 11.2.7.4 Soil Water Infiltration 335 11.2.8 Plant-Disease Suppression 335 11.3 Potential Risks Associated with Compost Use 336 11.3.1 Heavy Metals 336 11.3.2 Organic Compounds 338 11.3.3 Hygiene, Plant Diseases, Weeds 339 11.4 Crop Yields and Quality with Compost Use 339 11.4.1 Agricultural Crops 339 11.4.1.1 Cereals 339 11.4.1.2 Potatoes 341 11.4.1.3 Maize 341 11.4.2 Vegetable Crops 341 11.4.2.1 Solanaceous Crops 342 11.4.2.2 Cruciferous Crops 342 11.4.2.3 Cucurbitaceae 343 11.4.2.4 Legumes 343 11.4.2.5 Onions 343 11.4.3 Crop Quality 343 11.5 Conclusion 344 References 345 Chapter 12: Beneficial Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture 354 12.1 Introduction 355 12.2 Beneficial Microorganism’s Cultures 356 12.2.1 Photosynthetic Bacteria 356 12.2.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria 356 12.2.3 Yeasts 356 12.3 Soil Application of Beneficial Microorganisms 357 12.3.1 Positive Effects on Plant Growth 357 12.3.1.1 Cereal Crops 358 12.3.1.2 Vegetable Crops 358 12.3.1.3 Fruit Crops 359 12.3.1.4 Other Crops 359 12.3.2 Negative or No Effects on Plant Growth 360 12.3.3 Effect on Soil Properties 361 12.4 Foliar Application of Beneficial Microorganisms 362 12.5 Effect of Beneficial Microorganisms on Symbiotic Microorganisms 363 12.5.1 N2-Fixing Rhizobia 363 12.5.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 364 12.6 Pest Management with Beneficial Microorganisms 366 12.6.1 Weed Management 366 12.6.2 Control of Fungal Pathogens 367 12.6.3 Control of Bacterial Pathogens 368 12.6.4 Control of Insect Pests 368 12.7 Role of Beneficial Microorganisms under Abiotic Stresses 369 12.8 Treatment of Dairy Wastewater with Beneficial Microorganisms 369 12.9 Conclusion 370 References 370 Chapter 13: Foliar Fertilization for Sustainable Crop Production 378 13.1 Introduction 379 13.1.1 Ability of the Leaf to Absorb Nutrients 381 13.1.2 Foliar Supply of Micronutrients: Influence of Growth Substances 382 13.2 Responses to Foliar Supply of Nutrients – Studies with N, P, and K 383 13.2.1 Response to N 383 13.2.2 Response to N, P, K, Ca 387 13.2.3 Response to N, P, K with Micronutrients 389 13.2.4 Response to Micronutrients 390 13.2.5 Varietal Differences in Response to Foliar Application 392 13.3 Mechanisms of Foliar Absorption of Inorganic Nutrients 393 13.3.1 Leaf Components and Foliar Uptake: The Cuticle 393 13.3.2 The Trichomes 393 13.3.3 Pores and Ectoteichodes 395 13.3.4 Cuticular Permeability of Nutrients 397 13.4 Pathways of Nutrients Following Foliar Uptake 400 13.4.1 Transport of Nutrients in and out of the Leaf 400 13.4.2 Transport of Foliar Applied Nutrients to Other Plant Parts 403 13.5 Foliar Nutrition and the Law of the Maximum 404 13.6 Foliar Nutrition Through Sprinkler Irrigation 406 13.7 Conclusion 407 References 407 Index 410 9789048187409 Front Matter....Pages i-vi Avidin and Plant Biotechnology to Control Pests....Pages 1-21 Cover Crops for Sustainable Agrosystems in the Americas....Pages 23-58 Cover Crops in Agrosystems: Innovations and Applications....Pages 59-97 Improving Bioavailability of Phosphate Rock for Organic Farming....Pages 99-117 Mixed Cropping and Suppression of Soilborne Diseases....Pages 119-146 Decreasing Nitrate Leaching in Vegetable Crops with Better N Management....Pages 147-200 Manure Spills and Remediation Methods to Improve Water Quality....Pages 201-215 Cropping Systems Management, Soil Microbial Communities, and Soil Biological Fertility....Pages 217-242 Cyanobacterial Reclamation of Salt-Affected Soil....Pages 243-275 Measuring Environmental Sustainability of Intensive Poultry-Rearing System....Pages 277-309 Compost Use in Organic Farming....Pages 311-345 Beneficial Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture....Pages 347-369 Foliar Fertilization for Sustainable Crop Production....Pages 371-402 Back Matter....Pages 403-414