Fungi in Sustainable Food Production (Fungal Biology)

"This book presents research on the challenges and potential of fungal contribution in agriculture for food substantiality. Research on fungi plays an essential role in the improvement of biotechnologies which lead global sustainable food production. Use of fungal processes and products can bring increased sustainability through more efficient use of natural resources. Fungal inoculum, introduced into soil together with seed, can promote more robust plant growth through increasing plant uptake of nutrients and water, with plant robustness being of central importance in maintaining crop yields. Fungi are one of nature's best candidates for the discovery of food ingredients, new drugs and antimicrobials. As fungi and their related biomolecules are increasingly characterized, they have turned into a subject of expanding significance. The metabolic versatility makes fungi interesting objects for a range of economically important food biotechnology and related applications. The potential of fungi for a more sustainable world must be realized to address global challenges of climate change, higher demands on natural resources."--Back cover Foreword 6 Preface 7 Contents 9 About the Editors 11 Chapter 1: Fungal Byproducts in Food Technology 13 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 Use of Fungi in Food Biotechnology 14 1.3 Fungal Byproducts 16 1.3.1 Proteins from Filamentous Fungi Biomass 17 1.3.2 Byproducts from Fungal Fermentation 19 1.3.3 Fungal Chitosan 21 1.3.4 Other Fungal Byproducts 22 1.4 Unenviable Fungal Byproducts 24 1.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 25 References 26 Chapter 2: Fungal Production of Dietary Fibers 30 2.1 Definition 30 2.2 Introduction 31 2.3 Production 32 2.3.1 Preparation of Fungus (Mushroom) as Dietary Fiber 32 2.3.2 Commercial Mushroom Production in the Asian Tradition 33 2.4 Importance 33 2.5 Conclusion 34 2.6 Future Prospects 34 References 35 Chapter 3: GRAS Fungi: A New Horizon in Safer Food Product 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 History of GRAS 38 3.3 Fungi in All Quarters 38 3.4 Fungi in Food 39 3.4.1 Directly Consumed as Food 40 3.4.2 Secondary Metabolites 40 3.4.3 Alcoholic Beverages 40 3.5 Applications 41 3.5.1 Exploited as Nutraceuticals 41 3.5.2 Antioxidant Activity 41 3.5.3 Increased Shelf-Life of Vegetables and Fruits 42 3.5.4 Flavouring Agent 42 3.5.5 Colouring Agent 43 3.6 List of GRAS-Certified Fungi and Their Products 43 3.7 Concern of GRAS Ingredients 44 References 44 Chapter 4: Fungi in Food Bioprocessing 48 4.1 Introduction 48 4.2 Useful Fungi 49 4.3 Fermentation Processes 49 4.3.1 Natural Fermentation 51 4.3.2 Starter-Mediated Single-Stage Fermentation 52 4.3.3 Multiple-Stage Fermentation 52 4.4 Fermented Products: Manufacturing and Fungal Species Involved 52 4.4.1 Bread 52 4.4.1.1 Baker’s Yeast 53 4.4.1.2 Baking Technology 53 Bulk Fermentation Process 54 The Mechanical Dough Development Method 55 4.4.2 Sufu (Furu) 56 4.4.2.1 Naturally Fermented Sufu 56 4.4.2.2 Enzymatically Produced Sufu 56 4.4.2.3 Bacterial Fermented Sufu 56 4.4.2.4 Fungal Fermented Sufu 57 4.4.2.5 Grey Sufu 57 4.4.2.6 White Sufu 57 4.4.2.7 Red Sufu 57 4.4.2.8 Other Types 57 4.4.2.9 Mycology of Sufu 58 4.4.2.10 Manufacturing Process 58 Preparation of Tofu 59 Preparation of Pehtze (Pizi) 59 Salting 60 Ripening 60 4.4.3 Red Kojic Rice 60 4.4.3.1 Fungi Involved 60 4.4.3.2 Manufacturing Process 61 4.4.4 Soy Sauce 62 4.4.4.1 Fungal Species Involved 63 4.4.4.2 Manufacturing Process 63 4.4.5 Tempe 64 4.4.5.1 Mycology of Tempe 64 4.4.5.2 Manufacturing Process 65 4.4.6 Wine 66 4.4.6.1 Mycology of Wine Fermentation 66 4.4.6.2 Manufacturing Process 67 4.5 Conclusion 69 References 69 Chapter 5: Fungal Productions of Biological Active Proteins 74 5.1 Fungi as Source of Bioactive Proteins 74 5.2 Inhibition of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme by Mushroom 75 5.3 Antioxidant 81 5.4 Antifungal 83 5.5 Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins 84 5.6 Antibacterial 86 5.7 Conclusions 89 References 90 Chapter 6: Fungal Pectinases: Production and Applications in Food Industries 94 6.1 Introduction 94 6.2 Biochemical Characteristics of Pectinases 96 6.2.1 Pectinases 96 6.2.1.1 Mode of Action of Pectinases 96 6.2.2 Pectinase Characterization and Purification 97 6.2.3 Chemical Structure and Sources of Pectic Substance 99 6.3 Pectinase Production by Microbial Cell 102 6.3.1 Fungal Bioprocessing for Pectinase Production 102 6.3.2 D-Galacturonic Acid Degradation Pathway 103 6.3.3 Heterologous Pectinase Production 104 6.3.4 Gene Regulator for Fungal Pectinase 107 6.3.5 Recombinant Pectinase Production by Fungi 108 6.3.6 Parameters Affecting Enzyme Production 109 6.3.6.1 Fermentation pH Value 109 6.3.6.2 Temperature 109 6.3.6.3 Effect of Metal Ion 110 6.3.7 Pectin as an Inducer 110 6.4 Pectinase Applications 111 6.4.1 Wine Industry 111 6.4.2 Fruit and Vegetable Processing 112 6.4.3 Coffee Processing 113 6.4.4 Tea Processing 114 6.4.5 Chocolate Processing 116 6.4.6 Animal Feed Application 116 6.5 Commercial Pectinases 117 6.6 Conclusion 117 References 118 Chapter 7: Production of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids by Fungal Biofactories and Their Application in Food Industries 125 7.1 Introduction 125 7.2 Oleaginous Fungi 127 7.2.1 Induction of Lipogenesis in Oleaginous Fungi 128 7.3 Production of PUFA from Fungal Cells 129 7.4 Large-Scale Cultivation of PUFA-Producing Fungi 130 7.5 Processing Methods for Extraction of PUFA-Rich Oil 132 7.6 Application in Food Industries 133 7.7 Conclusion 134 References 134 Chapter 8: Fungal Production of Food Supplements 137 8.1 Introduction 137 8.2 Use of Fungi in Dietary Food 139 8.2.1 Use of Fruiting Body 139 8.3 Use of Fungi as and in Processed Food 140 8.3.1 SCP 140 8.3.2 Baker’s Yeast 143 8.3.2.1 Use of Yeast Cells in Food and Fodder 143 8.4 Processed Fungal Food as an Alternative to SCPs 144 8.4.1 Mycoprotein 144 8.5 Production of Bakery and Cheese Products 144 8.6 Use of Fungi in Beverage Production 145 8.7 Production of Other Food Products/Condiments/Additives 146 8.7.1 Shoyu 148 8.7.2 Miso 148 8.7.3 Indonesian Tempeh 148 8.8 Conclusion 148 References 149 Chapter 9: Mushrooms as Edible Foods 151 9.1 Introduction 151 9.2 Types of Mushrooms 161 9.2.1 Saprophytic Mushrooms 161 9.2.2 Mycorrhizal Mushrooms 165 9.2.3 Parasitic Mushrooms 168 References 169 Chapter 10: Recent Developments in Shiitake Mushrooms and Their Nutraceutical Importance 173 10.1 Introduction 173 10.2 Historical Biogeography of Shiitake Cultivation 175 10.3 Life Cycle and Methods of Shiitake Cultivation and Increasing Its Self-Life 176 10.4 Metabolic Profiling 178 10.5 Genome Organization and Gene Mining for Unique Aroma of Shiitake and Shelf-Life Enhancement 179 10.6 Nutraceutical Importance 180 10.7 Pharmacological and Immunomodulatory Roles of L. edodes 181 10.8 Concern 182 10.9 Conclusion 183 References 183 Chapter 11: Fungi: A Potential Future Meat Substitute 189 11.1 Introduction 189 11.2 Importance of Meat 190 11.3 Health Concerns of Meat 190 11.4 Sustainable Diet 191 11.5 Purpose of Searching for Meat Alternatives 191 11.6 Artificial Meat 192 11.7 Types of Nonmeat Proteins and Their Limitations 193 11.7.1 Soy Proteins 193 11.7.2 Legume Proteins 193 11.7.3 Oilseed Proteins 194 11.7.4 Cereal Proteins 194 11.8 Mycoproteins 194 11.9 Mycoprotein as a Meat Substitute 195 11.10 Fusarium venenatum 195 11.11 Production of Mycoproteins 195 11.12 Nutritional and Health Benefits 196 11.13 Environmental Aspects 197 11.14 Future of Meat Substitutes 199 11.15 Limitations 200 11.16 Conclusion 200 References 201 Chapter 12: Fungal Mycotoxins 204 12.1 Introduction 204 12.2 Types of Mycotoxins 206 12.3 Occurrence and Toxicity of Mycotoxins 206 12.4 The Factors Affecting Mycotoxin Production 208 12.5 Control of Mycotoxins 209 12.6 Removal of Mycotoxins in Foods 209 12.7 Mycotoxin Analysis 210 12.8 Factors Affecting the Promulgation of Mycotoxin Regulations 211 12.9 Aflatoxins 211 12.9.1 Definition of Aflatoxins 212 12.9.2 Factors Promoting Fungal Growth and Aflatoxin Production 212 12.9.2.1 Temperature 212 12.9.2.2 Moisture Content 213 12.9.2.3 Effect of Soil Properties on Aflatoxin Contamination in Food 213 12.9.2.4 Impact of Nutrient Composition of Food on Aflatoxin Contamination 213 12.9.3 Classification of Aflatoxin 214 12.9.4 Structure and Function of Aflatoxin Molecules 214 12.9.5 Occurrence of Aflatoxin 216 12.9.6 Major Factors Influencing Biosynthesis of AFB1 218 12.9.7 Degradation of Aflatoxins 218 12.9.7.1 Detoxification Using Lactic Acid Bacteria 218 12.9.7.2 Detoxification Using Food Additives 219 12.9.7.3 Detoxification Using Bioactive Substances of Plants 219 12.9.7.4 Detoxification Using Biomolecules of Fungi 220 12.9.7.5 Detoxification Using Actinomycetes 220 12.9.8 Detection of Aflatoxin in Food 220 12.10 Ochratoxins 222 12.11 Fumonisins 224 12.12 Zearalenone 226 12.13 Patulin 228 12.14 Conclusions 228 References 229 Index 234