Fungal Siderophores: From Mineral―Microbe Interactions to Anti-Pathogenicity (Fungal Biology)

In the past few decades, it has been realized through research that fungal siderophores epitomize the uptake of iron as well as other essential elements like zinc, magnesium, copper, nickel and arsenic. Understanding the chemical structures of different fungal siderophores and the membrane receptors involved in uptake of mineral ions has opened new areas for research. In this edited volume, recent research is presented on fungal siderophores in one comprehensive volume to provide researchers a strong base for future research. Siderophores are the low molecular weight, high affinity iron-chelating compounds produced by bacteria and fungi. They are responsible for transporting iron across the cell membrane. Fungi produce a range of hydroxamate siderophores involved in the uptake of essential elements in almost all microorganisms and plants. In recent years, siderophores have been used in molecular imaging applications to visualize and understand cellular functions, which thus provide an opportunity to identify new drug targets. Therefore, knowledge of fungal siderophores has become vital in current research. Siderophores have received much attention in recent years because of their potential roles and applications in various research areas. Their significance in these applications is because siderophores have the ability to bind a variety of metals in addition to iron, and they have a wide range of chemical structures and specific properties. For instance, siderophores function as biocontrols, biosensors, and bioremediation and chelation agents, in addition to their important role in weathering soil minerals and enhancing plant growth. This book focuses on siderophores with the following significant points. It discusses leading, state-of-the-art research in all possible areas on fungal siderophores. The contributors are well-known and recognized authorities in the field of fungal siderophores. It discusses a projection of practical applications of fungal siderophores in various domains. This is the first book exclusively on fungal siderophores. In this comprehensive, edited volume, we show leading research on fungal siderophores and provide the most recent knowledge of researchers' work on siderophores. This book presents in-depth knowledge on siderophores to researchers working in areas of health sciences, microbiology, plant sciences, biotechnology, and bioinformatics. Foreword Preface Contents Chapter 1: Basics of Fungal Siderophores: Classification, Iron Transport and Storage, Chemistry and Biosynthesis, Application, and More 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Microorganisms and Iron 1.3 Classification of Fungal Siderophores 1.4 Fungal Siderophores and Iron Transport 1.5 Fungal Siderophores and Iron Storage 1.6 Chemistry and Biosynthesis 1.7 Role of Iron in Fungal Physiology 1.8 Iron Sensing and Transcriptional Regulation 1.9 Siderophores and Pathogenicity 1.10 Applications 1.11 Potential Research Directions 1.12 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Inhibition of Siderophores in Blocking Fungal Infection 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Nature of Siderophores and Their Production 2.3 Screening of Compounds as Inhibitors of Siderophore Biosynthesis 2.3.1 Screening Through Biomonitor Organism 2.3.2 Screening of Compounds by Using Structural Similarity Approach 2.4 Blocking Siderophore as an Alternative Approach Toward Antifungal Therapy 2.4.1 Enzymatic Inhibitors Blocking the Production of Siderophore 2.4.2 Statins 2.4.3 Peptide-Based Inhibitors 2.4.4 Trojan Horse Approach 2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Association of Fungal Siderophores in Human Diseases: Roles and Treatments 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Human Fungal Diseases 3.1.2 Aspergillosis 3.1.2.1 Types of Aspergillosis 3.2 Role of Siderophores in Fungal Diseases 3.3 Association of Siderophoric System in Aspergillus Species and Infections 3.3.1 Aspergillus fumigatus 3.3.2 Aspergillus nidulans 3.3.3 Siderophore Biosynthetic Pathway in A. fumigatus and A. nidulans 3.4 Diagnosis of Aspergillosis 3.5 Treatment of Aspergillosis 3.6 Applications of Fungal Siderophores in Molecular Imaging 3.7 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Siderophores Mediated Iron Acquisition and Virulence of Brown Rot Disease in Stone Fruits Caused by Monilinia fructicola in Jammu and Kashmir 4.1 Background 4.2 Siderophore and Fungal Pathogenesis 4.3 Pathways of Fungal Siderophores Biosynthesis 4.3.1 Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetases (NRPSs) Multi Enzymes Dependent 4.3.2 NRPS-Independent 4.3.2.1 NRPS-Dependent Biosynthesis 4.3.2.2 NRPS-Independent Biosynthesis 4.4 Siderophores and Plant Immune Responses 4.5 Mechanisms of Siderophores Action on Plant Immune Response 4.5.1 Siderophore Regulation via Their Iron Scavenging Effect 4.5.2 Siderophores Regulation by Cell Receptors 4.6 Siderophore-Mediated Plant Immunity Activation 4.6.1 Role of Siderophores in Fungal Pathogenicity 4.6.2 Role of Siderophores, in (ROS) Generation, and Fungal Sexual Development 4.7 Role of Siderophores in Fungal Virulence 4.8 Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Application of Siderophore in Crop Productivity and Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soil 5.1 Decreasing Soil Fertility Impact on Agriculture 5.2 Metal Contamination 5.3 Biological Inoculants 5.4 Siderophore 5.5 Benefits of Siderophore 5.6 Mechanism of Action 5.7 Future Prospects References Chapter 6: Interventions to Ameliorate Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils Employing Fungal Siderophores 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Remediation In Situ 6.1.2 Remediation Ex Situ 6.1.3 Slurry-Phase Technique 6.1.4 Solid-Phase Technique 6.1.5 Land Farming 6.1.6 Composting 6.1.7 Soil Bio-piles 6.2 Nature of Heavy Metals 6.3 Principles Involved in Bioremediation 6.4 Bioremediation Involving Microorganisms 6.5 Fungal Bioremediation 6.5.1 Standards Involved in Fungal Siderophore Bioremediation 6.5.2 Contextual Investigations in Fungal Bioremediation 6.6 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Contrasting Role of Fungal Siderophore in Metal Ion Complex Formation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Siderophore-Mediated Iron Transport 7.3 Fungal Iron Regulation 7.3.1 Iron (Fe3+) Uptake Through Siderophore 7.3.2 Reductive Iron Assimilation (RIA) 7.3.3 Heme Uptake 7.3.4 Low-Affinity Iron Uptake 7.4 Types of Siderophore 7.4.1 Hydroxamate Siderophores 7.4.2 Carboxylate Siderophores 7.4.3 Catecholate Siderophore 7.4.4 Mixed Ligand Siderophores 7.5 Mechanism of Binding of Iron in Cell 7.6 Binding Sites in Siderophores 7.7 Metal Ion Complex Formation with Siderophore 7.8 Biological Functions of Siderophore 7.8.1 An Iron-Scavenging Compound 7.8.2 Virulence Factor 7.8.3 Intracellular Iron Storage 7.9 Applications of Siderophore 7.10 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Chemistry and Biomedical Applications of Fungal Siderophores 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Chemistry of Siderophores 8.2.1 Coprogens 8.2.1.1 Dihydroxamate Coprogens 8.2.1.2 Trihydroxamate Coprogens 8.2.2 Ferrichromes 8.2.3 Fusarinines 8.3 Biomedical Applications 8.3.1 Iron Overload 8.3.2 Biosensors and Nanosensors 8.3.3 Antimicrobial Activity 8.3.4 Molecular Imaging 8.3.5 Metal-Binding Property 8.4 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Fungal Siderophores: Prospects and Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Iron Acquisition in Fungi 9.2 Fungal Siderophores 9.3 Fungal Siderophore Synthesis and Function 9.4 Applications of Fungal Siderophores 9.4.1 Agriculture Impacts 9.4.2 Environment Impacts 9.4.3 Health Care 9.5 Experimental Techniques 9.6 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Bioinformatics Applications in Fungal Siderophores: Omics Implications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Potential of Bioinformatics 10.3 Bioinformatics Analysis in Natural Product Discovery Including Non-ribosomal Peptides 10.3.1 Genome Mining: Identification of BGCs 10.3.2 Linking BGCs to NPs 10.3.3 Utilizing Integrated Omics Approaches for Revealing Natural Product Biosynthetic Pathways 10.4 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Siderophores in Antifungal Drug Discovery: A Computational Approach 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Siderophores 11.2 Iron Acquisition Mechanism 11.2.1 Reductive Iron Acquisition 11.2.2 Siderophore Biosynthesis 11.2.3 Utilization of Siderophores by Non-producers 11.2.4 Host Molecule-Specific Iron Acquisition 11.2.5 Acidification and Mobilization 11.3 Siderophore-Mediated Iron Transport 11.3.1 Shuttle Mechanism 11.3.2 Taxicab Mechanism 11.3.3 Hydrolytic Mechanism 11.3.4 Reductive Mechanism 11.4 Siderophore-Mediated Iron Storage 11.5 Drug Discovery Strategies 11.5.1 Siderophore–Drug Conjugates 11.5.2 Siderophore Mimics 11.5.3 Siderophore Biosynthesis Inhibitors 11.5.4 Siderophore Transport Inhibitors 11.5.5 Computational Approaches 11.6 Conclusion References Chapter 12: A Summary on Up-To-Date Research on Fungal Siderophores on Disease, Treatment and Pathogenicity Based on Text Mining, Bioinformatics and Experts’ Opinion 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Citation Retrieval 12.3 Organisms Annotation 12.4 Genes and Protein Targets Associated with Fungal Siderophores 12.5 Fungal Siderophores and Human Diseases 12.5.1 Allergy and Histoplasmosis through Conidia 12.5.2 Mucormycosis and Zygomycosis 12.5.3 Fungal Diseases in Cystic Fibrosis 12.5.4 Miscellaneous Fungal Infections 12.6 Fungal Siderophores in Cancer Therapy 12.7 Fungal Siderophores and Pathogenicity 12.8 Conclusion References Index