Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology

Written by two top researchers, Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology, Fifth Edition guides students on a comprehensive journey of discovery through the realm of contemporary human neuropsychology. It is a remarkable text that makes an extraordinary amount of recent scholarship accessible and compelling. And with its dramatic new art program, new case studies and pedagogy, and new companion Web site, the Fifth Edition provides both the most up-to-date understanding of the field and the most effective ways to teach and learn it. Booknews A text for students in the neurosciences. Part I provides background information for those new to the study of the brain, covering basics such as the nervous system and the biochemical activity of the brain. Parts II and III focus on cortical organization and the higher functions in the normal brain. Part IV discusses disorders of the brain. Includes chapter summaries and a glossary. This fourth edition reflects changes in technology used to investigate brain function, and includes new information on attention, consciousness, and vision. Annotation c. Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com) Cover 1 PART I - BACKGROUND 2 Ch 1. The Development of Neuropsychology 2 The Brain Hypothesis 3 What Is the Brain? 3 How Is the Brain Related to the Rest of the Nervous System? 5 The Brain Versus the Heart 5 Descartes: The Mind–Body Problem 6 Darwin and Materialism 7 Experimental Approaches to Brain Function 8 Localization of Function 9 Recovery of Function 11 Localization and Lateralization of Language 12 Sequential Programming and Disconnection 14 Electrophysiological Confirmation of Localization 15 Hierarchical Organization of the Brain 17 The Neuron Hypothesis 18 Nervous System Cells 19 The Neuron 19 Information Conduction 21 Connections Between Neurons As the Basis of Learning 22 Modern Developments 22 Neurosurgery 22 Psychometrics and Statistical Evaluation 24 Advances in Technology 25 Summary 26 References 27 Ch 2. Origins of the Human Brain and Behavior 28 Species Comparison 29 Why Study Nonhuman Animals? 29 Questions That Can Be Addressed by Using Nonhuman Animals 30 The Use of a Quasi-Evolutionary Sequence 31 Human Origins 32 The Episodic Evolution of Humankind 33 Australopithecus: The East Side Story 34 Homo Habilis: The Omo Story 35 Homo Erectus: The Traveler 37 Homo Sapiens: The Eve Story 37 The Origin of Brain Size 38 The Encephalization Quotient 38 Changes in the Neocortex 39 Growth of the Hominid Brain 41 Variations in Modern Human Brain Size 43 The Acquisition of Culture 44 Summary 45 References 45 Ch 3. Organization of the Nervous System 47 An Overview of the Nervous System 48 Neurons and Glia 48 Gray, White, and Reticular Matter 50 Nuclei Nerves and Tracts 50 Staining 50 A Wonderland of Nomenclature 51 Describing Locations in the Brain 51 Approaches to the Study of Anatomy 52 The Comparative Approach 52 The Developmental Approach 52 Cytoarchitectonic Analysis 53 Functional Approaches 53 The Origin and Development of the Brain 54 The Spinal Cord 55 Spinal-Cord Structure 55 Spinal-Cord Function 57 The Brainstem 59 The Diencephalon 60 The Midbrain 61 The Hindbrain 61 Cranial Nerves 62 The Cortex 63 Hemispheres and Lobes 64 Fissures, Sulci, and Gyri 64 The Organization of the Cortex in Relation to Its Inputs and Outputs 65 The Organization of the Cells of the Cortex 67 Connections Between Cortical Areas 68 The Limbic Lobe and Basal Ganglia 69 The Limbic Lobe 69 The Basal Ganglia 70 The Crossed Brain 71 Blood Supply 72 Protection 73 Summary 73 References 74 Ch 4. The Structure and Electrical Activity of Neurons 75 The Neuron’s Structure 76 An Overview of a Neuron 76 The Cell as a Factory 78 The Cell Membrane: Barrier and Gatekeeper 79 The Nucleus: The Blueprints for Proteins 81 The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Site of Protein Synthesis 82 Golgi Bodies and Microtubules: Protein Packaging and Shipment 83 What Do Proteins Do? 84 The Neuron’s Electrical Activity 85 Recording from an Axon 85 How the Movement of Ions Creates Electrical Charges 86 The Resting Potential 89 Graded Potentials 91 The Action Potential 93 The Role of Voltage-Sensitive Channels 94 Refractory Periods 94 Sending a Message Along an Axon 95 The Nerve Impulse 95 Saltatory Conduction and Myelin Sheaths 97 The Next Neuron 98 Summary 99 References 99 Ch 5. Communication Between Neurons 100 The Structure of Synapses 101 Stages in Neurotransmission 103 Transmitter Synthesis and Storage 103 Release of the Neurotransmitter 103 Activation of Receptor Sites 104 Deactivation of the Neurotransmitter 105 Types of Synapses 105 Variations in Synaptic Connections 106 Excitatory and Inhibitory Messages 106 Kinds of Neurotransmitters 108 Identifying Neurotransmitters 108 Small-Molecule Transmitters 109 Peptide Transmitters 110 Transmitter Gases 111 Types of Receptors for Neurotransmitters 112 Ionotropic Receptors 112 Metabotropic Receptors 112 Neurotransmitter Functions 114 Summary 116 References 117 Ch 6. The Influence of Drugs on Behavior 118 Routes of Drug Administration 119 The Blood–Brain Barrier 120 Metabolism 121 Drug Actions in Synapses 122 Steps in Synaptic Transmission 122 Examples of Drug Action: An Acetylcholine Synapse 123 Classification of Psychoactive Drugs 124 Sedative-Hypnotics and Antianxiety Agents 125 Antipsychotic Agents 127 Antidepressants 128 Narcotic Analgesics 129 Stimulants 130 The Effects of Experience, Context, and Genes 131 Tolerance 132 Sensitization 133 Addiction and Dependence 135 Explaining Drug Abuse 137 Drug-Induced Behavior 138 Why Doesn’t Everyone Abuse Drugs? 139 Can Psychoactive Drugs Cause Brain Damage? 140 The Potential Harmfulness of Recreational Drugs 141 Summary 143 References 143 Ch 7. Imaging the Brain’s Activity 145 The Brain’s Electrical Activity 146 Single-Cell Recording 147 Electroencephalographic Recording 151 Event-Related Potentials 156 Magnetoencephalography 158 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 159 Static Brain-Imaging Techniques 159 Conventional Radiography 160 Pneumoencephalography 160 Angiography 160 Computerized Tomography 161 Dynamic Brain Imaging 161 Positron-Emission Tomography 162 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 166 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 169 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 170 Summary 172 References 173 PART II - CORTICAL ORGANIZATION 174 Ch 8. Organization of the Sensory Systems 174 General Principles of Sensory System Function 175 Sensory Receptors 176 Energy Transduction 176 Receptive Fields 177 Rapidly and Slowly Adapting Receptors 178 Self and Other Receptors 178 Localization and Identification 179 Neural Relays 179 Information Coding 180 Sensory Subsystems 181 Multiple Representations 182 Vision 183 Visual Receptors 183 Visual Pathways 183 Hearing 185 Auditory Receptors 185 Auditory Pathways 188 Balance 188 Body Senses 189 Somatosensory Pathways 190 Somatosensory Cortex 190 Taste and Smell 192 Receptors 192 Pathways 193 Perception 194 Summary 195 References 197 Ch 9. Organization of the Motor System 198 The Three Principles of Motor-System Function 199 Neocortical Contributions to Movement Control 201 A Theory of Neocortical Control of Movement 201 Identification of the Motor Cortex by Using Electrical Stimulation 202 The Pathways from the Motor Cortex to the Spinal Cord 203 The Motor Neurons 205 Overview of the Motor System 206 Movement Coding by Cells in the Neocortex 207 The Motor Cortex Contains a Lexicon of Movements 207 Motor-Cortex Cells Specify Movements, Their Force, and Their Direction 211 The Roles of the Prefrontal and Posterior Cortex 213 The Brainstem 214 The Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum 215 The Basal Ganglia and Movement Force 216 The Cerebellum and Motor Learning 217 Summary 220 References 221 Ch 10. Principles of Neocortical Function 222 A Hierarchy of Function from Spinal Cord to Cortex 223 The Spinal Cord and Reflexes 225 The Hindbrain and Postural Support 225 The Midbrain and Spontaneous Movement 226 The Diencephalon and Affect and Motivation 228 The Basal Ganglia and Self-Maintenance 229 The Cortex and Intention 230 The Structure of the Cortex 230 Cortical Cells 232 Cortical Layers, Efferents, and Afferents 233 Cortical Columns, Spots, and Stripes 234 Multiple Representations: Mapping Reality 236 Cortical Systems: The Frontal Lobe, Paralimbic Cortex, and Subcortical Loops 238 Cortical Connections, Reentry, and the Binding Problem 240 Functional Organization of the Cortex 241 A Hierarchical Model of Cortical Function 241 Evaluating the Hierarchical Model 243 A New Model of Cortical Function 244 Summary 249 References 249 Ch 11. Cerebral Asymmetry 251 Anatomical Asymmetry in the Human Brain 252 Cerebral Asymmetry 252 Neuronal Asymmetry 255 Asymmetry in Neurological Patients 256 Patients with Lateralized Lesions 256 Patients with Commissurotomy 258 Brain Stimulation 261 Carotid Sodium Amobarbital Injection 263 Behavioral Asymmetry in the Intact Brain 264 Asymmetry in the Visual System 265 Asymmetry in the Auditory System 265 Asymmetry in the Somatosensory System 267 Asymmetry in the Motor System 268 Direct Observation 268 Interference Tasks 269 What Do Laterality Studies Tell Us about Brain Function? 269 Neuroimaging and Asymmetry 271 Theoretical Arguments: What Is Lateralized? 272 Specialization Models 273 Interaction Models 274 Preferred Cognitive Mode 275 Measuring Behavior in Neuropsychology 277 Summary 279 References 280 Ch 12. Variations in Cerebral Asymmetry 283 Handedness and Functional Asymmetry 284 Anatomical Studies 284 Functional Cerebral Organization in Left-Handers 285 Theories of Hand Preference 286 Environmental Theories 286 Anatomical Theories 287 Hormonal Theories 288 Genetic Theories 288 Sex Differences in Cerebral Organization 289 Sex Differences in Behavior 289 Motor Skills 290 Spatial Analysis 290 Mathematical Aptitude 292 Perception 293 Verbal Ability 294 Aggression 294 Genes or Experience? 294 Sex Differences in Brain Structure 294 The Influence of Sex Hormones 295 Established Asymmetries 296 Sex Differences Revealed in Imaging Studies 297 Research with Neurological Patients 297 Explanations of Sex Differences 299 Hormonal Effects 299 Genetic Sex Linkage 302 Maturation Rate 302 Environment 302 Preferred Cognitive Mode 303 Conclusions 303 Environmental Effects on Asymmetry 303 Culture and Language 304 Sensory or Environmental Deficits 305 Brain Organization in Nonhearing People 305 Environmental Deprivation 306 Effects of Hemispherectomy 306 Ontogeny of Asymmetry 308 Asymmetry in Nonhumans 309 Asymmetry in Birds 310 Asymmetry in Rodents 311 Asymmetry in Nonhuman Primates 312 Summary 314 References 314 PART III CORTICAL FUNCTIONS 319 Ch 13. The Occipital Lobes 319 Anatomy of the Occipital Lobes 320 Subdivisions of the Occipital Cortex 320 Connections of the Visual Cortex 322 A Theory of Occipital-Lobe Function 323 Visual Functions Beyond the Occipital Lobe 324 Vision for Action 324 Action for Vision 325 Visual Recognition 325 Visual Space 326 Visual Attention 326 Visual Pathways Beyond the Occipital Lobe 326 Imaging Studies of Dorsal and Ventral Streams 328 Disorders of Visual Pathways 329 Disorders of Cortical Function 331 Case B. K.: V1 Damage and a Scotoma 331 Case D. B.: V1 Damage and Blindsight 333 Case J. I.: V4 Damage and Color 333 Case P. B.: Conscious Color Perception in a Blind Patient 334 Case L. M.: V5 Damage and the Perception of Movement 334 Case D. F.: Occipital Damage and Visual Agnosia 335 Case V. K.: Parietal Damage and Visuomotor Guidance 336 Cases D. and T.: Higher-Level Visual Processes 336 Conclusions from Case Studies 337 Visual Agnosia 337 Object Agnosias 338 Apperceptive Agnosia 338 Associative Agnosia 338 Other Agnosias 338 Prosopagnosia 339 Alexia 339 Visuospatial Agnosia 339 Why Are Faces Special? 339 Visual Imagery 342 Summary 343 References 344 Ch 14. The Parietal Lobes 346 Anatomy of the Parietal Lobes 346 Subdivisions of the Parietal Cortex 347 Connections of the Parietal Cortex 348 A Theory of Parietal-Lobe Function 349 Uses of Spatial Information 350 Object Recognition 350 Guidance of Movement 350 The Complexity of Spatial Information 352 Other Aspects of Parietal Function 353 Somatosensory Symptoms of 355 Somatosensory Thresholds 355 Somatoperceptual Disorders 355 Blind Touch 357 Somatosensory Agnosias 357 Symptoms of Posterior Parietal Damage 357 Balint’s Syndrome 358 Contralateral Neglect and Other Symptoms 358 Contralateral Neglect 359 Object Recognition 360 The Gerstmann Syndrome and Other Left Parietal Symptoms 361 Apraxia and the Parietal Lobe 362 Drawing 362 Spatial Attention 363 Disorders of Spatial Cognition 363 Left and Right Parietal Lobes Compared 364 Major Symptoms and Their Assessment 365 Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment 366 Somatosensory Threshold 366 Tactile Form Recognition 367 Contralateral Neglect 367 Visual Perception 367 Spatial Relations 367 Language 367 Apraxia 368 Summary 368 References 369 Ch 15. The Temporal Lobes 371 Anatomy of the Temporal Lobe 372 Subdivisions of the Temporal Cortex 372 Connections of the Temporal Cortex 373 A Theory of Temporal-Lobe Function 374 Sensory Processes 375 Affective Responses 375 Spatial Navigation 376 The Superior Temporal Sulcus and Biological Motion 376 Asymmetry of Temporal-Lobe Function 377 Symptoms of Temporal-Lobe Lesions 377 Disorders of Auditory Perception 378 Speech Perception 378 Music Perception 381 Disorders of Music Perception 382 Disorders of Visual Perception 383 Facial Recognition and Biological Motion 383 Activation of Inferior Temporal Neurons 384 Disturbance of Selection of Visual and Auditory Input 385 Organization and Categorization 386 Using Contextual Information 387 Memory 387 Affect and Personality 388 Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment of Temporal-Lobe Damage 388 Summary 389 References 390 Ch 16. The Frontal Lobes 392 Anatomy of the Frontal Lobes 393 Subdivisions of the Frontal Cortex 393 Connections of the Motor and Premotor Areas 394 Connections of the Prefrontal Areas 395 A Theory of Frontal-Lobe Function 396 Functions of the Premotor Cortex 396 Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex 397 Internal Cues 398 External Cues 398 Context Cues 398 Autonoetic Awareness 399 Asymmetry of Frontal-Lobe Function 399 Heterogeneity of Frontal-Lobe Function 400 Symptoms of Frontal-Lobe Lesions 401 Disturbances of Motor Function 401 Fine Movements, Speed, and Strength 401 Movement Programming 401 Voluntary Gaze 403 Corollary Discharge 404 Speech 405 Loss of Divergent Thinking 406 Behavioral Spontaneity 406 Strategy Formation 408 Environmental Control of Behavior: Impaired Response Inhibition and Inflexible Behavior 409 Response Inhibition 409 Risk Taking and Rule Breaking 410 Self-regulation 411 Associative Learning 411 Poor Temporal Memory 411 Impaired Social and Sexual Behavior 415 Pseudodepression 416 Pseudopsychopathy 416 Is There a Spatial Deficit? 418 Symptoms Associated with Damage to the Facial Area 418 Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment of Frontal-Lobe Damage 419 Imaging Frontal-Lobe Function 421 Diseases Affecting the Frontal Lobe 422 Summary 423 References 424 Ch 17. Disconnection Syndromes 427 Disconnecting Cognitive Functions 428 Anatomy of Cerebral Connections 429 The Behavioral Effects of Disconnection 431 Hemispheric Disconnection 433 Commissurotomy 434 Callosal Agenesis and Early Transections 435 Disconnecting Sensorimotor Systems 436 Olfaction 436 Vision 437 Somesthesis 437 Audition 438 Movement 438 The Effects of Partial Disconnection 439 Lesion Effects Reinterpreted As Disconnection Syndromes 441 Apraxia 441 Agnosia and Alexia 441 Experimental Verification of Disconnection Effect 442 Disconnecting the Visual System 442 Disconnecting Nonvisual Regions from the Visual System 443 Unresolved Questions 445 Species Differences 445 Development 445 Head Trauma 446 Philosophical Arguments 446 Summary 446 References 447 PART IV - HIGHER FUNCTIONS 448 Ch 18. Memory 448 Amnesia 449 The Medial Temporal Lobe and Amnesia 450 Causes of Amnesia 450 Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia 452 Two Kinds of Memory 453 Implicit and Explicit Memory 453 The Neural Basis of Explicit Memory 455 The Neural Basis of Implicit Memory 456 Two Kinds of Explicit Memory 458 Episodic Memory 459 Semantic Memory 461 The Role of the Hippocampus in Memory 461 Anatomy of the Hippocampus 462 Case Histories of Hippocampal Function 465 What Do We Learn about Explicit Memory from Hippocampal Patients? 467 Memory Storage and the Hippocampus 468 Multiple Memory Systems 469 The Temporal Cortex 469 The Amygdala 472 The Perirhinal Cortex 472 The Diencephalon 474 Ascending Systems 475 Short-Term Memory 475 Short-Term Memory and the Temporal Lobes 476 Short-Term Memory in the Frontal Lobes 476 A Case of Total Recall 479 Summary 481 References 481 Ch 19. The Origins of Language 484 What Is Language? 485 Components of Language 485 The Production of Sound 486 The Origins of Language 487 Predecessors of Language 488 Language As a Recently Evolved Ability 488 Speech As a Gestural Language 489 Evidence for Languagelike Processes in Apes 491 Language in Parrots 494 A Theory of Language 494 The Localization of Language 495 Anatomical Areas Associated with Language 495 Lesion Studies in Humans 496 Speech Zones Mapped by Electrical Stimulation 497 Speech Zones Mapped by Imaging 499 Disorders of Language 503 Fluent Aphasias 504 Nonfluent Aphasias 505 Pure Aphasias 505 The Localization of Lesions in Aphasia 506 Cortical Components of Language 506 Subcortical Components of Language 507 Right-Hemisphere Contributions to Language 508 The Assessment of Aphasia 511 The Assessment of Dyslexia 512 Summary 514 References 515 Ch 20. Emotion 517 The Nature of Emotion 518 Feeling Emotion 518 What Is Emotion? 519 Historical Views 520 Investigating the Anatomy of Emotion 520 The Emotional Brain 521 The Cortical Connections of Emotion 521 Klüver-Bucy Syndrome 521 Psychosurgery 523 Studies in Normal Subjects 523 The Production of Affective Behavior 523 The Perception of Relevant Stimuli 524 Vision 524 Audition 525 Personality Differences and Brain Structure 525 Candidate Structures in Emotional Behavior 525 Processing Emotional Stimuli 526 Brain Circuits for Emotion 527 Studies of Nonhuman Primates: Prefrontal and Paralimbic Lesions 528 Studies of Nonhuman Primates: Amygdalectomy 530 Premorbid Emotional Processes 530 General Theories of Emotion 531 Somatic Marker Hypothesis 531 Cognitive–Emotional Interactions 533 Cognitive Asymmetry and Emotion 535 Asymmetry in Emotional Processing 536 The Production of Emotional Behavior 536 The Interpretation of Emotional Behavior 539 Temporal-Lobe Personality 542 Summary 543 References 544 Ch 21. Spatial Behavior 547 The Organization of Spatial Behavior 548 Historical Background 548 Topographic Disorientation 549 Brain Regions Compromised in Spatial Disorientation 550 The Dorsal and Ventral Streams 555 The Temporal Lobes and Spatial Behavior 556 The Hippocampus As a Cognitive Map 556 The Hippocampus and Food Finding in Birds 560 Dead Reckoning 561 Two Systems for Spatial Navigation 565 A Word of Caution 565 The Parietal Lobe 566 The Frontal Lobe 568 Individual Differences in Spatial Abilities 569 Sex-Related Differences 569 Genetic Contributions to Sex-Based Differences 570 Hormonal Influences on Sex-Based Differences 571 Handedness and Spatial Ability 572 Neuropsychological Spatial Tests 572 Summary 574 References 575 Ch 22. Attention, Mental Images, and Consciousness 577 Defining Attention and Consciousness 578 Attention 579 Automatic Versus Conscious Processing 579 Neurophysiological Evidence of Attention 582 Functional Imaging and Attention 585 Networks of Attention 587 Mechanisms of Attention 589 Inattention 589 The Absence of Visual Attention 590 Sensory Neglect 591 Mental Images 592 The Neural Basis of Images 594 Kinds of Images 596 Apraxia 597 Asymmetry in Movement Control 600 Social Cognition 601 Consciousness 603 Why Are We Conscious? 604 The Neural Basis of Consciousness 605 Summary 607 References 607 PART V - PLASTICITY AND DISORDERS 610 Ch 23. Brain Development and Plasticity 610 Approaches to Studying Development 610 The Development of the Human Brain 611 Generating Neurons 613 Cell Migration and Differentiation 614 Neural Maturation 615 Synapse Formation and Pruning 617 Glial Development 618 Imaging Studies of Brain Development 619 The Development of Problem-Solving Ability 619 Environmental Effects on Brain Development 622 Environmental Influences on Brain Organization 623 Experience and Neural Connectivity 624 Plasticity of Representational Zones in the Developing Brain 625 Brain Injury and Plasticity 627 The Effects of Age 627 The Effect of Brain Damage on Language 628 The Reorganization of Language 630 The Absence of Language after Bilateral Lesions 633 Experimental Approaches to Studying Plasticity after Early Brain Injury 633 The Effects of Early Brain Lesions on Behaviors Later in Life 633 The Effects of Early Brain Lesions on Brain Structure Later in Life 636 Brain Size 637 Neuronal Morphology 637 Cortical Connectivity 638 Neurogenesis after Early Cortical Injury 638 Factors Influencing Plasticity after Early Cortical Injury 639 Summary 640 References 641 Ch 24. Developmental Disorders 643 Learning Disabilities 644 Historical Background 644 Incidence of Learning Disabilities 646 Types of Learning Disabilities 646 Reading Disabilities 647 Types of Reading 647 The Role of Sensory Detection in Reading 648 Analysis of Correlated Deficits 650 Neuropsychological Evaluation 652 Nonlanguage Learning Disabilities 654 Hyperactivity 654 Cerebral Palsy 656 Hydrocephalus 657 Autism 658 Fragile-X Syndrome 661 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 661 Developmental Influences on Learning Disabilities 662 Structural Damage and Toxic Effects 663 The Geschwind-Galaburda Theory 663 Abnormal Cerebral Lateralization 664 Maturational Lag 665 Environmental Deprivation 665 The Birthday Effect 666 Genetic Bases of Learning Disabilities 666 The Adult Outcome of Learning Disabilities 667 Summary 668 References 668 Ch 25. Plasticity, Recovery, and Rehabilitation of the Adult Brain 671 Cortical Plasticity in the Intact Adult Brain 672 Inferring Plasticity from Changes in Behavior 672 Plasticity in Cortical Maps 673 Plasticity in Synaptic Organization 676 Plasticity in Physiological Organization 676 Plasticity in Molecular Structure 677 Mitotic Activity 678 Can Plasticity Support Functional Recovery after Injury? 680 Compensation Compared with Recovery 680 What Happens When a Brain Is Injured? 681 Examples of Functional Restitution 682 Recovery from Motor-Cortex Damage 682 Recovery from Aphasia 683 Recovery from Traumatic Lesions 683 Recovery from Surgical Lesions 684 Return to Daily Life 686 Plasticity in the Injured Brain 687 Functional Imaging after Cerebral Injury 687 Physiological Mapping after Cerebral Injury 688 Variables Affecting Recovery 690 Therapeutic Approaches to Brain Damage 691 Rehabilitation 692 Pharmacological Therapies 693 Brain-Tissue Transplants and Stem-Cell Induction 694 Summary 694 References 695 Ch 26. Neurological Disorders 698 The Neurological Examination 699 The Patient’s History 699 The Physical Examination 700 Vascular Disorders 700 Cerebral Ischemia 701 Migraine Stroke 701 Cerebral Hemorrhage 702 Angiomas and Aneurysms 702 Treatment of Vascular Disorders 702 Traumatic Head Injuries 703 Open-Head Injuries 703 Closed-Head Injuries 704 Behavioral Assessment in Head Injury 705 Recovery from Head Injury 707 Epilepsy 707 Focal Seizures 708 Generalized Seizures 708 Akinetic and Myoclonic Seizures 709 Treatment of Epilepsy 709 Tumors 709 Headaches 710 Migraine 711 Headache Associated with Neurological Disease 712 Muscle-Contraction Headache 712 Nonmigrainous Vascular Headaches 712 Treatment of Headaches 712 Infections 713 Viral Infections 714 Bacterial Infections 714 Mycotic Infections 714 Parasitic Infestations 714 Treatment of Infections 714 Disorders of Motor Neurons and the Spinal Cord 715 Myasthenia Gravis 716 Poliomyelitis 716 Multiple Sclerosis 716 Paraplegia 718 Brown-Sequard Syndrome 718 Hemiplegia 719 Disorders of Sleep 719 Narcolepsy 720 Insomnia 721 Summary 722 References 722 Ch 27. Psychiatric and Related Disorders 724 The Brain and Behavior 724 Schizophrenia 725 Structural Abnormalities in Schizophrenic Brains 725 Biochemical Abnormalities in Schizophrenic Brains 726 Types of Schizophrenia? 727 Neuropsychological Assessment 727 Mood Disorders 727 Neurochemical Aspects of Depression 728 Blood Flow and Metabolic Abnormalities in Depression 729 Neurobiological Aspects of Bipolar Disorder 731 Psychosurgery 732 Motor Disorders 733 Hyperkinetic Disorders 733 Hypokinetic Disorders 737 Positive Symptoms 738 Negative Symptoms 739 Causes of Parkinsonism 740 Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease 741 Psychological Aspects of Parkinson’s Disease 742 Dementia 742 Anatomical Correlates of Alzheimer’s Disease 744 Neuritic (Amyloid) Plaques 744 Paired Helical Filaments 744 Neocortical Changes 744 Paralimbic Cortex Changes 745 Cell Changes 745 Neurotransmitter Changes 745 Putative Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease 745 Genetics 746 Trace Metals 746 Immune Reactions 746 Slow Viruses 746 Blood Flow 746 Abnormal Proteins 747 Clinical Symptoms and the Progression of Alzheimer’s Disease 747 Summary 749 References 749 Ch 28. Neuropsychological Assessment 752 The Changing Face of Neuropsychological Assessment 753 Functional Imaging 753 Cognitive Neuroscience 753 Managed Care 755 Rationale Behind Neuropsychological Assessment 755 Factors Affecting Test Choice 756 Goals of Neuropsychological Assessment 757 Intelligence Testing in Neuropsychological Assessment 758 Case Histories 759 Case 1 759 Case 2 760 Case 3 760 Case 4 761 Case 5 762 Case 6 762 Summary 763 References 763