اصول طراحی هواپیما و بالون: طراحی هواپیما. مقدمه؛ مرور بر آیرودینامیک عملی؛ روش‌های عملکرد هواپیما؛ محدوده عملیاتی هواپیما؛ برآورد اولیه وزن برخاست؛ برآورد بار بال برخاست؛ سِل

The aircraft is only a transport mechanism for the payload, and all design decisions must consider payload first. Simply stated, the aircraft is a dust cover. This book emphasizes that the aircraft design process is a science and an art, but also a compromise. The authors address the conceptual design phase comprehensively, for both civil and military aircraft, from initial consideration of user needs, material selection, and structural arrangement to the decision to iterate the design one more time. The book includes designing for survivability (stealth), solar- and human-powered aircraft systems, and very high altitude operation with air breathing propulsion. This book revises and expands the 1975 classic aircraft design textbook that has been used worldwide for more than 30 years. Completely updated with the latest industry processes and techniques, it will benefit graduate and upper-level undergraduate students as well as practicing engineers. Special features include step-by-step examples throughout the book, including designing a wing, lessons captured from historical case studies of aircraft design, and full-color photographs of multiple aircraft. - Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. AIAA and the author are not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor do AIAA and the author warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights. Front Matter 1 List of Color Plates 3 Preface 5 Table of Contents 7 1. Introduction 16 1.1 Aeronautics - The Beginning 17 1.2 Aircraft Design - A Compromise 18 1.2.1 Performance vs Cost 18 1.2.2 There is Never a Right Answer 21 1.3 Overall Design Requirements 21 1.3.1 Mission Requirements 21 1.3.2 Cost Requirements 22 1.3.3 Maintenance and Support Requirements 22 1.3.4 Scheduling Requirements 22 1.3.5 Where Do the Design Requirements Come from? 22 1.3.6 Need to Question the Requirements 27 1.3.6.1 TWA Specification - 1932 27 1.3.6.2 USAF ATF Specification - 1985 28 1.3.6.3 USAF JASSM Specification - 1995 29 1.3.7 Measure of Merit 30 1.4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 31 1.4.1 Design Limitations - Human Operator 33 1.4.2 Risk to Human Operator 34 1.4.3 Elimination of Search and Rescue 34 1.4.4 Training and Proficiency 35 1.5 Specifications, Standards, and Regulations 36 1.6 Aircraft Design Phases 38 1.7 Scope of the Text 42 References 45 2. Review of Practical Aerodynamics 47 2.1 Introduction 48 2.2 Drag 51 2.3 Boundary Layers and Skin Friction Drag 52 2.4 Incompressible Airfoil Section Theory 54 2.5 Subsonic Compressibility Corrections 57 2.6 Finite Wing Corrections 57 2.7 Sweep Correction 58 2.8 Combined Effects 59 2.9 Nonlinear Wing Lift and Moment 60 2.10 Total Aircraft Subsonic Aerodynamics 62 2.11 Transonic Flow and its Effects 68 2.12 Wing Thickness Ratio 70 2.13 Wing Sweep 71 2.14 Supercritical Wing 73 2.15 Wing-Body Combinations for Transonic Flight 75 2.16 Mach Wave 76 2.17 Subsonic and Supersonic Leading Edge 77 2.18 Supersonic Skin Friction 77 2.19 Supersonic Lift and Wave Drag 78 2.20 Correction for Three-Dimensional Effects 80 2.21 Sanity Check 81 References 84 3. Aircraft Performance Methods 85 3.1 Introduction 86 3.2 Level Unaccelerated Flight 86 3.3 Minimum Drag and Maximum L/D 89 3.4 Variation of T_R with Weight, Configuration, and Altitude 91 3.5 Endurance or Loiter 92 3.6 Range 97 3.7 Level Constant Velocity Turn 103 3.8 Energy-State Approximation 104 3.9 Energy Maneuverability for Air Combat Assessment 107 3.10 Rate of Climb and Descent 111 3.11 Summary for Maximum Range and Endurance 114 References 114 4. Aircraft Operating Envelope 115 4.1 Flight Envelope 116 4.2 Minimum Dynamic Pressure 117 4.3 Maximum Thrust Limit 118 4.4 Maximum Dynamic Pressure 118 4.5 Aerodynamic Heating 119 4.5.1 Stagnation Point Heating on Nose and Swept Wing Leading Edge 120 4.5.2 Lower Surface Heating 120 4.6 Sonic Boom 122 4.7 Noise and Pollution Limits 122 4.7.1 Regulations 123 4.7.2 Estimating Aircraft Noise for Advanced Design 125 4.8 Propulsion Limits 126 4.9 Optimal Trajectories 126 References 135 5. Preliminary Estimate of Takeoff Weight 137 5.1 Introduction 138 5.2 Fixed Weight 138 5.3 Empty Weight 138 5.4 Fuel Weight 140 5.5 Determining W_TO 146 5.6 Range-or Payload-Dominated Vehicles 154 5.7 High Altitude Atmospheric Research Platform 160 Reference 163 6. Estimating the Takeoff Wing Loading 164 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Range-Dominated Vehicle 165 6.3 Endurance or Loiter 169 6.4 Landing and Takeoff 170 6.5 Air-to-Air Combat and Acceleration 172 6.6 High Altitude 176 6.6.1 HAARP Wing Loading 177 6.7 High Altitude, Long Endurance 178 6.8 Low-Altitude Ride Quality 181 7. Selecting the Planform and Airfoil Section 183 7.1 Introduction 184 7.2 Effect of Airfoil: Maximum Thickness Ratio 185 7.3 Effect of Airfoil: Location of Maximum Thickness 186 7.4 Effect of Airfoil: Leading Edge Shape 187 7.5 Effect of Airfoil: Camber 190 7.6 Effect of Planform: Aspect Ratio 192 7.7 Effect of Planform: Sweep 194 7.8 Effect of Planform: Taper Ratio 198 7.9 Variable Geometry 198 7.10 Summary 206 References 206 8. Preliminary Fuselage Sizing and Design 207 8.1 Fuselage Volume 208 8.1.1 Passengers 209 8.1.2 Lavatories, Galleys, and Emergency Exits 211 8.1.3 Passenger Cargo 211 8.1.4 Military Cargo and Equipment 211 8.1.5 Crew Compartment 212 8.1.6 Armament 213 8.1.7 Landing Gear 213 8.1.8 Wing Carry-Through 215 8.1.9 Propulsion Integration 215 8.1.10 Fuel 221 8.1.11 Avionics 222 8.1.12 Wrap it Up 224 8.2 Fuselage Fineness Ratio 225 8.3 Fuselage Shapes 226 8.3.1 Cone-Cylinder 226 8.3.2 Ogive-Cylinder 226 8.3.3 Power Series-Cylinder 227 8.3.4 Von Kármán Ogive 228 8.3.5 Sears-Haack Body 228 8.4 Transonic and Supersonic Area-Ruling 229 References 232 9. High-Lift Devices 233 9.1 Introduction 234 9.2 Mechanical High-Lift Devices: Trailing Edge Flaps 234 9.3 Mechanical High-Lift Devices: Separation Delay Devices 235 9.3.1 Boundary Layer Control 236 9.3.2 Slots and Slats 237 9.3.3 Leading Edge Flaps 238 9.3.4 Practical Mechanical High-Lift Systems 239 9.4 Methods for Determining Maximum Subsonic C_L of Mechanical Lift Devices 242 9.5 Subsonic Drag due to Flap Deflection 254 9.6 Powered High-Lift Devices for STOL 254 9.6.1 Deflected Slipstream 256 9.6.2 Externally or Internally Blown Flap 258 9.6.3 Jet Flap 260 9.6.4 Augmentor Wing 260 9.7 Powered High-Lift Devices for V/STOL 260 References 265 10. Takeoff and Landing Analysis 266 10.1 Introduction 267 10.2 Ground Effects 268 10.3 Takeoff Analysis 271 10.3.1 Ground Distance S_G 271 10.3.2 Rotation Distance, S_R 276 10.3.3 Transition Distance, S_TR 277 10.3.4 Climb Distance, S_CL 278 10.3.5 Time during Takeoff 278 10.4 Landing Analysis 278 10.4.1 Air Distance S_A 279 10.4.2 Free Roll Distance S_FR 279 10.4.3 Braking Distance S_B 280 10.5 Aircraft Retardation Devices 281 10.6 Critical Field Length 284 10.7 Comparison of Analytical Estimates with L-1011 Flight Test 284 10.8 Airport Operations 292 References 293 11. Preliminary Sizing of the Vertical and Horizontal Tails 294 11.1 Tail Volume Coefficient Approach 295 11.2 Sizing the Vertical Tail 295 11.3 Sizing the Horizontal Tail 297 11.4 Horizontal Tail 301 11.5 Tailless 302 11.6 Vertical Location of the Aft Horizontal Tail 302 11.7 Horizontal Location of the Vertical Tail 302 References 303 12. Designing for Survivability 304 12.1 Putting Things in Perspective 305 12.2 Designing for Reduced Vulnerability 306 12.3 Designing for Reduced Susceptibility 308 12.4 Radar Cross Section 311 12.4.1 Radar Scattering Phenomena 311 12.4.2 Vehicle Shaping 316 12.4.3 Absorption and Cancellation 320 12.4.4 Inlet and Nozzle RCS Design 322 12.4.5 RCS Design Summary 323 12.5 Infrared 324 12.5.1 Introduction to Infrared 325 12.5.2 IR Design 327 12.6 Visual Signature 328 12.7 Acoustic Signature 328 12.8 Case Study - AGM-129A Advanced Cruise Missile 330 References 331 13. Estimating Wing-Body Aerodynamics 333 13.1 Linear Lift Curve Slope 335 13.1.1 Subsonic 335 13.1.2 Supersonic 336 13.1.3 Transonic 337 13.1.4 Wing-Body C_L alpha 338 13.2 Drag-due-to-Lift 341 13.2.1 Subsonic 341 13.2.2 Supersonic 344 13.2.3 Transonic 345 13.3 Zero-Lift Drag Coefficient 346 13.3.1 Wing: Subsonic 346 13.3.2 Wing: Transonic 347 13.3.3 Wing: Supersonic 350 13.3.4 Body: Subsonic 354 13.3.5 Body: Transonic 355 13.3.6 Body: Supersonic 355 13.3.7 Miscellaneous Drag Items 356 13.3.8 Wing-Body C_D0 359 13.4 Combined Vehicle Aerodynamics 363 References 363 14. Propulsion System Fundamentals 365 14.1 Introduction 366 14.2 Operation of Propeller Systems 367 14.2.1 Reciprocating Piston Engines 368 14.2.2 Turboprop Engines 371 14.2.3 Electric Motors 372 14.3 Operation of Turbine Systems 373 14.3.1 Turboprop 376 14.3.2 Turbofan 376 14.3.3 Factors Affecting Thrust and TSFC 379 14.3.4 Turbine Engine Data 380 14.4 Ramjet Engine Operation 383 14.5 Rocket Operation 385 References 392 15. Turbine Engine Inlet Design 393 15.1 Introduction 394 15.2 Pressure Recovery and Inlet Types 395 15.2.1 SR-71 Mixed Compression Inlet Operation 399 15.3 Capture-Area Ratio or Mass-Flow Ratio 405 15.4 Variable-Geometry Inlets 407 15.5 Quality of the Airflow - Distortion and Turbulence 409 15.6 Weight and Cost 411 15.7 Inlet Sizing and Design 412 References 422 16. Corrections for Turbine Engine Installation 423 16.1 Introduction 424 16.2 Total Pressure Recovery 424 16.3 Engine Bleed Requirements 426 16.4 Inlet Flow Distortion 426 16.5 Inlet Drag 426 16.6 Additive 427 16.7 Boundary Layer Bleed Drag 432 16.7.1 Choked Flow 433 16.7.2 Unchoked Flow 434 16.7.3 Exit Flap Drag 435 16.8 Bypass Drag 435 16.9 Boundary Layer Diverter Drag 435 16.10 Nozzle-Airframe Interference Effects 437 16.10.1 Nozzle Types 437 16.10.2 Boattail Drag 440 16.10.3 Base Area and Multiengine Installation 441 References 444 17. Propeller Propulsion Systems 445 17.1 Introduction 446 17.2 Why Propellers? 446 17.3 Theory 447 17.3.1 Momentum Theory 447 17.3.2 Blade Element Theory 450 17.3.3 Vortex Theory 458 17.4 Preliminary Design 458 17.5 Shaft Engine Characteristics 469 References 474 18. Propulsion System Thrust Sizing 476 18.1 Introduction 477 18.2 Turbine Engine Scaling 477 18.3 Turbine Engines Sized for Cruise Efficiency 478 18.4 Energy Maneuverability 480 18.5 Engine Sizing for Acceleration 481 18.6 Turbine Engine Sizing for Takeoff 482 18.7 Solar Power 486 18.8 Sizing Solar-Powered Aircraft 489 18.9 Piston Engine Sizing - HAARP 495 18.10 Human-Powered Aircraft - Daedalus 496 18.11 Rocket Engine Sizing 497 References 499 19. Structures and Materials 500 19.1 Introduction 501 19.2 Structural Design Criteria and External Loads 502 19.3 Stress Analysis 509 19.4 Finite Element Modeling 516 19.5 Structural Joints 519 19.6 Durability and Damage Tolerance 522 19.7 Mass Properties 523 19.8 Flutter and Dynamics 525 19.9 Structural Layout 526 19.9.1 Wing Structure 527 19.9.2 Fuselage Structure 530 19.9.3 Structural Design Rules-of-Thumb 532 19.10 Material Selection 534 19.11 Composite Materials 536 19.12 Sandwich Structure 538 19.13 Structural Testing 540 19.14 Summary 559 References 559 20. Refined Weight Estimate 560 20.1 Introduction 561 20.2 Weight-Estimation Methods 562 20.2.1 Conventional Metal Aircraft - Moderate Subsonic to Supersonic Performance 562 20.2.1.1 Structure 562 20.2.1.2 Propulsion 564 20.2.1.3 Surface Controls Plus Hydraulics and Pneumatics 569 20.2.1.4 Instruments 570 20.2.1.5 Electrical System 570 20.2.1.6 Furnishings 571 20.2.1.7 Air Conditioning and Anti-Icing 573 20.2.1.8 Electronics 574 20.2.1.9 Landing Retardation Devices 574 20.2.2 Conventional Metal Aircraft - Light Utility Aircraft 574 20.2.2.1 Structure 575 20.2.2.2 Propulsion 576 20.2.2.3 Surface Controls 577 20.2.2.4 Electrical System 577 20.2.2.5 Furnishings 577 20.2.2.6 Air Conditioning and Anti-Icing 577 20.2.2.7 Electronics 578 20.2.3 Advanced-Composites Aircraft 578 20.2.4 Low Wing Loading Aircraft 579 20.3 Determining Center of Gravity and Moments of Inertia 581 References 583 21. Static Stability and Control 584 21.1 Introduction 585 21.2 Federal Regulations 587 21.3 Static Stability and Control Considerations 588 21.4 Static Longitudinal Stability and Control 589 21.5 Static Lateral Stability and Control 596 21.6 Static Directional 603 21.7 Aft Tail Location for Reduced Pitch-up 606 References 609 22. Trim Drag and Maneuvering Flight 610 22.1 Neutral Point and Static Margin 611 22.2 Aft Tail Deflection to Trim n = 1 Flight 612 22.3 Canard Deflection for Trim at n = 1 616 22.4 Control of a Tailless Aircraft at n = 1 617 22.5 Aft Tail Deflection for Maneuvering Flight - Pull-up Maneuver 619 22.6 Canard Deflection for Maneuvering Flight - Pull-up Maneuver 620 22.7 Elevon Deflection for a Tailless Aircraft in Maneuvering Flight - Pull-up Maneuver 620 22.8 Control Deflection for Level Turn Maneuvering Flight 620 References 621 23. Control Surface Sizing Criteria 622 23.1 Government Regulations Require Static Stability 623 23.2 Center of Gravity Location 624 23.3 Sizing the Horizontal Surface 627 23.3.1 Static Longitudinal Stability 628 23.3.2 Longitudinal Control 628 23.4 Sizing the Vertical Tail 629 23.4.1 Static Directional Stability 629 23.4.2 Fighter Aircraft Spin Resistance 629 23.4.3 Static Directional Control Requirements 631 23.5 Sizing the Ailerons 632 References 633 24. Life Cycle Cost 634 24.1 Life Cycle Cost 635 24.2 DT&E and Acquisition-Production Costs 638 24.2.1 Airframe Engineering 640 24.2.2 Development Support 641 24.2.3 Flight Test Operations 642 24.2.4 Tooling 643 24.2.5 Manufacturing Labor 644 24.2.6 Quality Control 644 24.2.7 Manufacturing Material and Equipment 645 24.2.8 Engine and Avionics Costs 646 24.3 Operations and Maintenance Phase 653 24.4 O&M Costs 656 24.5 Design for Reduced Cost 657 24.5.1 Design for Production 657 24.5.2 Design for O&M 658 References 659 25. Trade Studies and Sizing 660 25.1 Introduction 661 25.2 Carpet Plots and Knotholes 662 25.3 Design Trades 669 25.4 Mission Trades 669 25.5 Technology Trades 670 25.6 Risk Analysis 671 25.7 Now We are Done 674 25.8 Kelly Johnson's 14 Rules of Management 674 References 677 Appendices 678 Appendix A: Conversions 678 A.1 Unit Conversions 679 A.1.1 Length 679 A.1.2 Area 680 A.1.3 Volume 681 A.1.4 Velocity 682 A.1.5 Acceleration 682 A.1.6 Angular Rate and Frequency 682 A.1.7 Mass 683 A.1.8 Weight 683 A.1.9 Force 683 A.1.10 Pressure 684 A.1.11 Density 685 A.1.12 Work and Energy 686 A.1.13 Power 687 A.2 Temperature Conversions 687 A.3 Gases and Liquids 688 A.3.1 Standard Values for Air at Sea Level 688 A.3.2 Specific Weights of other Gases at One Atmosphere and 0°C 688 A.3.3 Specific Weights 688 Index 689 A 689 B 693 C 695 D 699 E 703 F 706 G 709 H 710 I 711 J 712 K 713 L 714 M 716 N 719 O 720 P 721 Q 723 R 723 S 726 T 732 U 735 V 736 W 737 X 741 Y 742 Z 742 Supporting Materials 743 Color Plates 744 Color Plates 744 This book is revision and expansion of the classic 1975 aircraft design textbook that has been used worldwide for more than 30 years. Completely updated with the latest industry processes and techniques, it will benefit graduate and upper-level undergraduate students as well as practicing engineers. The aircraft is only a transport mechanism for the payload, and all design decisions must consider payload first. Simply stated, the aircraft is a dust cover. Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design, Volume 1: Aircraft Design ; emphasizes that the science and art of the aircraft design process is a compromise and that there is no right answer; however, there is always a best answer based on existing requirements and available technologies. CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 - Introduction Chapter 2 - Review of Practical Aerodynamics Chapter 3 - Aircraft Performance Methods Chapter 4 - Aircraft Operating Envelope Chapter 5 - Preliminary Estimate of Takeoff Weight Chapter 6 - Estimating the Takeoff Wing Loading Chapter 7 - Selecting the Planform and Airfoil Section Chapter 8 - Preliminary Fuselage Sizing and Design Chapter 9 - High-Life Devices Chapter 10 - Takeoff and Landing Analysis Chapter 11 - Preliminary Sizing of the Vertical and Horizontal Tails Chapter 12 - Designing for Survivability (Stealth) Chapter 13 - Estimating Wing-Body Aerodynamics Chapter 14 - Propulsion System Fundamentals Chapter 15 - Turbine Engine Inlet Design Chapter 16 - Corrections for Turbine Engine Installation Chapter 17 - Propeller Propulsion Systems Chapter 18 - Propulsion System Thrust Sizing Chapter 19 - Structures and Materials Chapter 20 - Refined Weight Estimate Chapter 21 - Static Stability and Control Chapter 22 - Trim Drag and Maneuvering Flight Chapter 23 - Control Surface Sizing Criteria Chapter 24 - Life Cycle Cost Chapter 25 - Trade Studies and Sizing Appendix A - Conversions Appendix B - Atmospheric Data Appendix C - Isentropic Compressible Flow Functions Appendix D - Normal Shock Functions for a Perfect Gas Appendix E - Plane Oblique and Conical Shocks Appendix F - NACA Airfoil Nomenclature and Data Appendix G - Aerodynamic Data of Real Aircraft Appendix H - Aerodynamics of Wing Body Combinations Appendix I - Aircraft Weights Data Appendix J - Propulsion Data Appendix K - Miscellaneous Data

The aircraft is only a transport mechanism for the payload, and all design decisions must consider payload first. Simply stated, the aircraft is a dust cover. Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design, Volume 1: Aircraft Design emphasizes that the science and art of the aircraft design process is a compromise and that there is no right answer; however, there is always a best answer based on existing requirements and available technologies.

CONCEPTS DISCUSSED
The authors address the conceptual design phase comprehensively, for both civil and military aircraft, from initial consideration of user needs, material selection, and structural arrangement to the decision to iterate the design one more time. The book includes designing for

• Survivability (stealth)
• Solar and human power aircraft systems
• Very high altitude operation with air breathing propulsion

This book is revision and expansion of the 1975 classic aircraft design textbook that has been used worldwide for more than 30 years. Completely updated with the latest industry processes and techniques, it will benefit graduate and upper-level undergraduate students as well as practicing engineers.

SPECIAL FEATURES

• Step-by-step examples throughout the book, including designing a wing
• Lessons captured from historical case studies of aircraft design
• Full-color photographs of multiple aircraft

v. 1. Aircraft design. Introduction ; Review of practical aerodynamics ; Aircraft performance methods ; Aircraft operating envelope ; Preliminary estimate of takeoff weight ; Estimating the takeoff wing loading ; Selecting the planform and airfoil section ; Preliminary fuselage sizing and design ; High-lift devices ; Takeoff and landing analysis ; Preliminary sizing of the vertical and horizontal tails ; Designing for survivability (stealth) ; Estimating wing-body aerodynamics ; Propulsion system fundamentals ; Turbine engine inlet design ; Corrections for turbine engine installation ; Propeller propulsion systems ; Propulsion system thrust sizing ; Structures and materials ; Refined weight estimate ; Static stability and control ; Trim drag and maneuvering flight ; Control surface sizing criteria ; Life cycle cost ; Trade studies and sizing Appendix A : Conversions Appendix B : Atmospheric data Appendix C : Isentropic compressible flow functions Appendix D : Normal shock functions for a perfect gas Appendix E : Plane oblique and conical shocks Appendix F : NACA airfoil nomenclature and data Appendix G : Aerodynamic data of real aircraft Appendix H : Aerodynamics of wing-body combinations Appendix I : Aircraft weights data Appendix J : Propulsion data Appendix K : Miscellaneous data. Content: Front Matter • List of Color Plates • Preface • Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Review of Practical Aerodynamics 3. Aircraft Performance Methods 4. Aircraft Operating Envelope 5. Preliminary Estimate of Takeoff Weight 6. Estimating the Takeoff Wing Loading 7. Selecting the Planform and Airfoil Section 8. Preliminary Fuselage Sizing and Design 9. High-Lift Devices 10. Takeoff and Landing Analysis 11. Preliminary Sizing of the Vertical and Horizontal Tails 12. Designing for Survivability (Stealth) 13. Estimating Wing-Body Aerodynamics 14. Propulsion System Fundamentals 15. Turbine Engine Inlet Design 16. Corrections for Turbine Engine Installation 17. Propeller Propulsion Systems 18. Propulsion System Thrust Sizing 19. Structures and Materials 20. Refined Weight Estimate 21. Static Stability and Control 22. Trim Drag and Maneuvering Flight 23. Control Surface Sizing Criteria 24. Life Cycle Cost 25. Trade Studies and Sizing Appendices Index • Supporting Materials Color Plates