From Wilderness to Paradise: A Sixth-century Mosaic Pavement at Qasr El-lebia in Cyrenaica, Libya

From Wilderness to Paradise presents an in-depth study of the large mosaic pavement in the East Church at Qasr el-Lebia in Cyrenaica, Libya. The pavement, which survives almost in its entirety, consists of fifty panels, each containing a different image. Despite being described as ‘the finest and most interesting set of Christian mosaics yet found in Libya’ (Illustrated London News, December 1957), subsequent studies have generally dismissed the pavement as a random selection of images with no symbolic meaning and no overarching scheme. This book argues that the remarkably rich and complex mosaic should be understood as a coherent whole. A discussion about reading imagery in Late Antiquity precedes a meticulous iconographical study. Within the pavement’s overall coherence, the grid layout allows the panels to be read in different directions, rather like a crossword puzzle, their meaning shifting with each change of focus. Particular attention is paid to small groups of images related either by subject matter or location, and the discussion shows how the placement of certain panels impacts the surrounding imagery, giving meaning over and above the significance of individual motifs. The iconographical study concludes by considering the mosaic from the viewpoint of those moving across the pavement and the phenomenological responses this interaction may have elicited. It suggests that as the images passed fleetingly underfoot, a journey unfurled and one was led from a chaotic oceanic wilderness in the east, to a more orderly paradisiacal world further west. Cover 1 Title Page 2 Copyright Information 4 Contents 5 List of Figures 7 1: Introduction 15 Fig. 1. Large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. As shown in Illustrated London News, December 1957 15 Fig. 2. Fifty Panels from the large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. Author 16 Fig. 3. Detail of border from the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 17 Fig. 4. Plan of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 19 Fig. 5. Northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 19 Fig. 6. Northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 20 Fig. 7. Detail of central panel in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 20 Fig. 8. Detail of central panel in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 21 Fig. 9. Inscription by the doorway in the west wall of the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 21 Fig. 10. Inscription by opening into tomb chamber to the north of the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 22 Fig. 11. Inscription by doorway at the east end of northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 22 Fig. 12. Sanctuary pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 23 Fig. 13. Sanctuary pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 24 Fig. 14. Sanctuary Pavement, Central Church, Cyrene. Copyright © The Society for Libyan Studies 2021 24 Fig. 15. Altar base and mosaic at time of excavation. East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. From Illustrated London News, December 1957. 25 Fig. 16. Inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 26 Fig. 17. Polis Nea Theodorias, in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 27 Fig. 18. Sheep in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 28 Fig. 19. Gazelle in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 28 Fig. 20. Bull in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 29 Fig. 21. Lion in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 29 Fig. 22. Ram in front of a tree, from a chapel in Madaba, Jordan. Author 29 Fig. 23. A leopard in front of a tree in the north aisle of a church in Kissufim, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 30 Fig. 24. Kosmesis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 30 Fig. 25. Ktisis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 30 Fig. 26. Ananeosis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 27. Geon in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 28. Euphrates in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 29. Tigris in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 30. Phison in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 32 Fig. 31. Kastalia in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 32 Fig. 32. Crocodile and bull combat scene, House of Leontis at Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 33 2: Cyrenaica 34 Fig. 33. Map of Libya. Public Domain 35 Fig. 34. House of Hesychius, Cyrene. Author 36 Fig. 35. Baldaccino beneath the church at Umm Heneia el Garbia. Author 37 Fig. 36. Arcades under the church at Umm Heneia el Garbia. Author 38 Fig. 37. Approach to Qasr el-Lebia. Author 38 Fig. 38. Plan of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/2/7 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. 39 Fig. 39. Exterior of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 40 Fig. 40. Interior of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 40 Fig. 41. Plan of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 41 Fig. 42. Benches in northwest annex, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 42 Fig. 43. Solea, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 42 Fig. 44. Double orthostats, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 43 3: Reading the Mosaic Pavement 44 Fig. 45. Anicia Juliana on the dedication page of the Vienna Dioscurides. Public Domain 45 Fig. 46. Inscription above west doorway in Santa Sabina, Rome. With permission of Web Gallery of Art 46 Fig. 47. Plant scroll in Armenian chapel Jerusalem. Public Domain. 49 Fig. 48. Church of Ss Lot and Procopius, Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, Jordan. Author 50 Fig. 49. Qabr Hiram mosaic. Now in Louvre Museum, Paris. Public Domain. G. Garitan 51 Fig. 50. Panel with border. Photographed before the panels were lifted. Illustrated London News, December 1957. 51 Fig. 51. North aisle, Byzantine Basilica, Petra. Author 52 Fig. 52. South aisle, Byzantine Basilica, Petra. Author 52 4: Iconographic Analysis 54 Fig. 53. Arrangement of oceanic and Nilotic images in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 54 Fig. 54. Transept, Basilica A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis. Photo S. Curtis 56 Fig. 55. Teatro Maritime at the Villa Adriana, Tivoli. Author 57 Fig. 56. Detail of the marine thiasos in the Teatro Maritime at Villa Adriana, Tivoli. Author 57 Fig. 57. Okeanus from Ain Témouchent near Sétif, Algeria. Now in the Museum of Antiquities, Algiers. Author 58 Fig. 58. Sea monster, large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 59 Fig. 59. Sea monster, large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 59 Fig. 60. Sarcophagus from the Cemetery of St. Calixtus, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museum. Author 60 Fig. 61. Loculus slab from the Cemetery of Praetextatus, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museums, Rome. Author 60 Fig. 62. Odysseus mosaic, House of Leontis, Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 61 Fig. 63. Merman in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 61 Fig. 64. Phorkys mosaic from the Trajan Baths of Acholla. Now in the Bardo Museum, Tunis. Public Domain. D. Jarvis 62 Fig. 65. Nilometer in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris, Israel. Author 64 Fig. 66. Alexandria in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris, Israel. Author 64 Fig. 67. Nilotic imagery at east end of north aisle in the church at Tabgha, Israel. Author 65 Fig. 68. Nilotic imagery in the Villa Silin, Libya. Author 65 Fig. 69. Detail of oceanic border, Basilica, A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis, Greece. Photo S. Curtis 66 Fig. 70. Oceanic and Nilotic panels in the large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. Author 66 Fig. 71. Kosmesis and Ktisis flanking a representation of Polis Nea Theodorias with Ananeosis below. Large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 68 Fig. 72. Ktisis and Kosmesis from Ras al-Hilal. Now in the Museum at Susa (Apollonia). Author 70 Fig. 73. Kosmesis, Ktisis and Ananeosis from Taucheira. Photo Dr. W. Wootton 71 Fig. 74. Ktisis. House of Eustolios, Kourion, Cyprus. Author 72 Fig. 75. Ktisis. House of Ktisis, Antioch. Author 72 Fig. 76. Ktisis Villa of the Amazons, Urfa, Turkey. Author 72 Fig. 77. Ktisis. Now in The Metropolitan Museum, New York. Public Domain, Wmpearl 73 Fig. 78. Ktisis. From Jiyyeh, now in the Beiteddine Palace, Lebanon. Public Domain 74 Fig. 79. Consular diptychs of Aerobindus and Probus Anastatius. Public Domain - Musée de Cluny and Bibliothèque Nationale de France 77 Fig. 80. Female portrait from The Upper Chapel of Priest John at Wadi’Afrit, Jordan. With permission from The American Center of Research, Jordan 77 Fig. 81. City personifications, Hippolytus Hall, Madaba, Jordan. Author 78 Fig. 82. Theodosia and Georgia in the Orpheus Mosaic from Jerusalem, now in the Archaeological Museum. Archaeological Museum. Public Domain. 78 Fig. 83 Mosaic pavement depicting female donors Kissufim, western Negev 578 CE stone and glass IAA 1977-416 Collection of Israel Antiquities Authority Photo © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem by Elie Posner 79 Fig. 84. Mosaic in the Church of St Demetrius, Thessaloniki, Greece. Author 81 Fig. 85. Mosaic in a field at Gasr Bandis in Cyrenaica. Author 82 Fig. 86. Panel showing two women holding offerings. Gasr Bandis, Cyrenaica. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies 82 Fig. 87. Male figure next to the female figures at Gasr Bandis, Cyrenaica. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies 82 Fig. 88. Ananeosis from the Constantinian Villa, Antioch. Now in Hatay Mosaic Museum, Turkey. Author 84 Fig. 89. Tyche mosaic from Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 84 Fig. 90. Votive relief of Gadde from Dura Europos. Public Domain, Yale University Art Gallery 85 Fig. 91. Ananeosis above the eagle in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 85 Fig. 92. Tableau of nine panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 87 Fig. 93. Birds pulling festoons from a basket in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 88 Fig. 94. Daniel with festoons behind him. Pécs (Sopianae), Hungary. Author 88 Fig. 95. Geon in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 96. Phison in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 97. Euphrates in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 98. Tigris in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 99. Apse mosaic, Hosios David, Thessaloniki. With permission from David Hendrix/The Byzantine Legacy 92 Fig. 100. Two sarcophagi from Sant’Apollinaris in Classe, Ravenna, Italy. Author 93 Fig. 101. Sarcophagus in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, Italy. With permission from Carola Jäggi, Zurich University 93 Fig. 102. Geon in the baptistery at Jabaliyah, Israel. With permission from Jean-Baptiste Humbert 94 Fig. 103. Baptistery at the Episcopal Basilica, Stobi, Macedonia. Author 95 Fig. 104. Apotropaic phalli on a street corner in Leptis Magna, Libya. Author 96 Fig. 105. Phallus carved on a pier outside a cave, thought to have been a Mithraeum, on one of the main streets in Tiddis, Algeria. Author 97 Fig. 106. Naked hunter, Sepphoris, Israel. Author 98 Fig. 107. Border in Basilica A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis, Greece. Photo S. Curtis 99 Fig. 108. The eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 101 Fig. 109. Personification of Kastalia in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 101 Fig. 110. Section of the apse mosaic at Hosios David in Thessaloniki, Greece. With permission from David Hendrix/The Byzantine Legacy 104 Fig. 111. Personification of Summer, in the Byzantine Basilica at Petra, Jordan. Author 105 Fig. 112. Section of south aisle in the Byzantine Basilica at Petra, Jordan. Author 106 Fig. 113. Nave mosaic, Tayibat al-Imam, Syria. Author 107 Fig. 114. Satyr, Musician and Leopard in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 109 Fig. 115. Section of the Sheikh Zouède mosaic, Eretz, Israel. With permission from Marek T. Olszewski 111 Fig. 116. The Pharos in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 114 Fig. 117. Reverse of a Tetradrachm of Commodus. AD 177-92. Public Domain 114 Fig. 118. A Pharos mosaic from Ostia Antica, Italy. Author 115 Fig. 119. Loculus cover from the Coemeterium Jordanorum, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museums. Author 116 Fig. 120. Boat heading for the Pharos in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 116 Fig. 121. Pedimented building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 117 Fig. 122. Ampulla from the Abbey Museum, Bobbio, Italy. Public Domain. 118 Fig. 123. Glass chalice from Palestine, now in the Dumbarton Oaks Museum. With permission from Dumbarton Oaks Museum 118 Fig. 124. Above a door in the south wall of the church at Ras al-Hilal, Cyrenaica. Author 118 Fig. 125. One remaining support for curtain rod above a door in the east wall in Siret el Giambi Monastery, El Beida, Cyrenaica. Author 118 Fig. 126. Polis Nea Theodorias in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 119 Fig. 127. Castellated building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 119 Fig. 128. Plan showing position of castellated building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 120 Fig. 129. The three architectural representations on the central axis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 121 Fig. 130. Ostriches at either end of a row of panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 122 Fig. 131. Horses flanking the pedimented building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 122 Fig. 132. Sheep flanking inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 123 Fig. 133. Bulls flanking sheep and inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el_Lebia. Author 123 Fig. 134. Bulls flanking a pedestal, Umm Hartain, Syria. With permission from Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar 124 Fig. 135. Lions flanking the eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 125 Fig. 136. Mosaic in Basilica D in Byllis, Albania Byllis. With permission from Neritan Ceka 125 Fig. 137. Stags flanking the lions and the eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 126 Fig. 138. Stag with a snake in its mouth in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 127 Fig. 139. Stag with snake in the Great Palace Mosaic, Istanbul. Author 127 Fig. 140. Gazelles flanking Kosmesis, Ktisis and Polis Nea Theodorias in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 128 Fig. 141. Bear in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 128 Fig. 142. Mismatched ‘pair’ of animals in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 129 5. Overall Programme 130 Fig. 143. Large fish at entrance to east end of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 131 Fig. 144. Entrance to north aisle, Sabratha, Libya. Author 131 Fig. 145. Threshold to south aisle, Basilica A, Amphipolis, Greece. Author 131 Fig. 146. Doorway into the space paved by the large mosaic, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 132 Fig. 147. Panels by the entrance to the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 132 Fig. 148. Arrows marking the symmetry that emerges further west in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 133 Fig. 149. Peacock and wreath on the central axis of the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 134 Fig. 150. Pedimented building marking the change from Ocean to Nile in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 135 Fig. 151. Nilotic and Paradisiacal imagery in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 136 Fig. 152. Honour guard flanking the central axis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 137 Fig. 153. Tableau of nine panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 138 Fig. 154. Arriving at Polis Nea Theodorias, flanked by Kosmesis and Ktisis. The large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 139 6. Architectural Setting and Hypotheses 140 Fig. 155. Plan of the East Church at Qasr el-Lebia showing the proposed partition. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 140 Fig. 156. Strip of vine scroll mosaic to the west of the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 141 Fig. 157. Photograph of showing the small marble tiles. From the Illustrated London News, December 1957 142 Fig. 158. Episcopium chapel, Heraclea Lyncestis, Macedonia. Author 144 Fig. 159. Episcopium chapel, Heraclea Lyncestis, Macedonia. Author 144 Fig. 160. Plan of the East Church Cyrene with location of baptistery and Crocodile/ bull combat scene. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies. Annotations by au 145 Fig. 161. Peacocks by east doorway in northeast annex, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 146 Fig. 162. Butrint Baptistery. With permission from The Butrint Foundation 147 Fig. 163. Ceiling mosaic in San Giovanni in Fonte, Naples, Italy. Author 148 Fig. 164. Baptistery at Butrint with possible consignatorium. With permission from the Butrint Foundation 149 Fig. 165. Mosaic by door between baptistery and adjacent hall at Butrint. With permission from The Butrint Foundation 149 Fig. 166. Kosmesis and Ktisis at the end of the journey, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 150 Acknowledgements 13 1. Introduction 15 Overview of the Mosaics 15 The Large Mosaic Pavement 17 Pavements in the Northeast Annex and Sanctuary 18 Northeast Annex 18 Sanctuary 18 Dating 26 2. Cyrenaica 34 Geographical Context 34 Christianity in Cyrenaica 35 The Archaeological Site at Qasr el-Lebia 37 West Church 39 East Church 41 3. Reading the Mosaic Pavement 44 Imagery and Literature in Late Antiquity 44 Varietas 46 Layout of the pavement 48 4. Iconographic Analysis 54 Ocean and Nile 54 Ocean 54 Nile 63 Personifications - Kosmesis, Ktitis and Ananeosis 67 Kosmesis and Ktisis 69 Ananeosis 83 The Rivers of Paradise 89 Geon 89 Phison 89 Euphrates 89 Tigris 89 Kastalia and the Eagle 100 Kastalia 100 Castalian Spring at Daphne 101 Castalian Spring at Delphi 102 Kastalia at Qasr el-Lebia 102 The Eagle and its Prey 105 A Musician, a Leopard and a Satyr 108 Architectural Representations 112 Pharos 113 Pedimented Building 115 Polis Nea Theodorias 119 Castellated Building 119 Two-by-Two 120 Ostriches 120 Horses 121 Sheep 122 Bulls 123 Lions 124 Stags 126 Gazelles 127 Anomalies 128 5. Overall Programme 130 The Journey: Wilderness to Paradise 131 Wilderness 131 Paradise 134 6. Architectural Setting and Hypotheses 140 Architectural Setting 140 Hypothesis 1: The Large Mosaic as the Pavement of part of an Episcopium 142 Hypothesis 2: The Large Pavement as Part of a Baptismal Complex 143 Conclusion 150 Bibliography 151 Index 163 Mosaic Pavemants,Late Antiquity,Early Christian Basilicas,Cyrenaica,Baptism,Wilderness,Paradise From Wilderness to Paradise presents an in-depth study of the large mosaic pavement in the East Church at Qasr el-Lebia in Cyrenaica, Libya. The pavement, which survives almost in its entirety, consists of fifty panels, each containing a different image. Despite being described as ‘the finest and most interesting set of Christian mosaics yet found in Libya’ (Illustrated London News, December 1957), subsequent studies have generally dismissed the pavement as a random selection of images with no symbolic meaning and no overarching scheme. This book argues that the remarkably rich and complex mosaic should be understood as a coherent whole. A discussion about reading imagery in Late Antiquity precedes a meticulous iconographical study. Within the pavement’s overall coherence, the grid layout allows the panels to be read in different directions, rather like a crossword puzzle, their meaning shifting with each change of focus. Particular attention is paid to small groups of images related either by subject matter or location, and the discussion shows how the placement of certain panels impacts the surrounding imagery, giving meaning over and above the significance of individual motifs. The iconographical study concludes by considering the mosaic from the viewpoint of those moving across the pavement and the phenomenological responses this interaction may have elicited. It suggests that as the images passed fleetingly underfoot, a journey unfurled and one was led from a chaotic oceanic wilderness in the east, to a more orderly paradisiacal world further west. Cover 1 Title Page 2 Copyright Information 4 Contents 5 List of Figures 7 1: Introduction 15 Fig. 1. Large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. As shown in Illustrated London News, December 1957 15 Fig. 2. Fifty Panels from the large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. Author 16 Fig. 3. Detail of border from the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 17 Fig. 4. Plan of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 19 Fig. 5. Northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 19 Fig. 6. Northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 20 Fig. 7. Detail of central panel in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 20 Fig. 8. Detail of central panel in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 21 Fig. 9. Inscription by the doorway in the west wall of the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 21 Fig. 10. Inscription by opening into tomb chamber to the north of the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 22 Fig. 11. Inscription by doorway at the east end of northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 22 Fig. 12. Sanctuary pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 23 Fig. 13. Sanctuary pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 24 Fig. 14. Sanctuary Pavement, Central Church, Cyrene. Copyright © The Society for Libyan Studies 2021 24 Fig. 15. Altar base and mosaic at time of excavation. East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. From Illustrated London News, December 1957. 25 Fig. 16. Inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 26 Fig. 17. Polis Nea Theodorias, in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 27 Fig. 18. Sheep in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 28 Fig. 19. Gazelle in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 28 Fig. 20. Bull in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 29 Fig. 21. Lion in front of a tree in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 29 Fig. 22. Ram in front of a tree, from a chapel in Madaba, Jordan. Author 29 Fig. 23. A leopard in front of a tree in the north aisle of a church in Kissufim, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 30 Fig. 24. Kosmesis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 30 Fig. 25. Ktisis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 30 Fig. 26. Ananeosis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 27. Geon in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 28. Euphrates in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 29. Tigris in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 31 Fig. 30. Phison in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 32 Fig. 31. Kastalia in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 32 Fig. 32. Crocodile and bull combat scene, House of Leontis at Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 33 2: Cyrenaica 34 Fig. 33. Map of Libya. Public Domain 35 Fig. 34. House of Hesychius, Cyrene. Author 36 Fig. 35. Baldaccino beneath the church at Umm Heneia el Garbia. Author 37 Fig. 36. Arcades under the church at Umm Heneia el Garbia. Author 38 Fig. 37. Approach to Qasr el-Lebia. Author 38 Fig. 38. Plan of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/2/7 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. 39 Fig. 39. Exterior of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 40 Fig. 40. Interior of West Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 40 Fig. 41. Plan of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 41 Fig. 42. Benches in northwest annex, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 42 Fig. 43. Solea, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 42 Fig. 44. Double orthostats, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 43 3: Reading the Mosaic Pavement 44 Fig. 45. Anicia Juliana on the dedication page of the Vienna Dioscurides. Public Domain 45 Fig. 46. Inscription above west doorway in Santa Sabina, Rome. With permission of Web Gallery of Art 46 Fig. 47. Plant scroll in Armenian chapel Jerusalem. Public Domain. 49 Fig. 48. Church of Ss Lot and Procopius, Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, Jordan. Author 50 Fig. 49. Qabr Hiram mosaic. Now in Louvre Museum, Paris. Public Domain. G. Garitan 51 Fig. 50. Panel with border. Photographed before the panels were lifted. Illustrated London News, December 1957. 51 Fig. 51. North aisle, Byzantine Basilica, Petra. Author 52 Fig. 52. South aisle, Byzantine Basilica, Petra. Author 52 4: Iconographic Analysis 54 Fig. 53. Arrangement of oceanic and Nilotic images in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 54 Fig. 54. Transept, Basilica A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis. Photo S. Curtis 56 Fig. 55. Teatro Maritime at the Villa Adriana, Tivoli. Author 57 Fig. 56. Detail of the marine thiasos in the Teatro Maritime at Villa Adriana, Tivoli. Author 57 Fig. 57. Okeanus from Ain Témouchent near Sétif, Algeria. Now in the Museum of Antiquities, Algiers. Author 58 Fig. 58. Sea monster, large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 59 Fig. 59. Sea monster, large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 59 Fig. 60. Sarcophagus from the Cemetery of St. Calixtus, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museum. Author 60 Fig. 61. Loculus slab from the Cemetery of Praetextatus, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museums, Rome. Author 60 Fig. 62. Odysseus mosaic, House of Leontis, Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 61 Fig. 63. Merman in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 61 Fig. 64. Phorkys mosaic from the Trajan Baths of Acholla. Now in the Bardo Museum, Tunis. Public Domain. D. Jarvis 62 Fig. 65. Nilometer in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris, Israel. Author 64 Fig. 66. Alexandria in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris, Israel. Author 64 Fig. 67. Nilotic imagery at east end of north aisle in the church at Tabgha, Israel. Author 65 Fig. 68. Nilotic imagery in the Villa Silin, Libya. Author 65 Fig. 69. Detail of oceanic border, Basilica, A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis, Greece. Photo S. Curtis 66 Fig. 70. Oceanic and Nilotic panels in the large pavement at Qasr el-Lebia. Author 66 Fig. 71. Kosmesis and Ktisis flanking a representation of Polis Nea Theodorias with Ananeosis below. Large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 68 Fig. 72. Ktisis and Kosmesis from Ras al-Hilal. Now in the Museum at Susa (Apollonia). Author 70 Fig. 73. Kosmesis, Ktisis and Ananeosis from Taucheira. Photo Dr. W. Wootton 71 Fig. 74. Ktisis. House of Eustolios, Kourion, Cyprus. Author 72 Fig. 75. Ktisis. House of Ktisis, Antioch. Author 72 Fig. 76. Ktisis Villa of the Amazons, Urfa, Turkey. Author 72 Fig. 77. Ktisis. Now in The Metropolitan Museum, New York. Public Domain, Wmpearl 73 Fig. 78. Ktisis. From Jiyyeh, now in the Beiteddine Palace, Lebanon. Public Domain 74 Fig. 79. Consular diptychs of Aerobindus and Probus Anastatius. Public Domain - Musée de Cluny and Bibliothèque Nationale de France 77 Fig. 80. Female portrait from The Upper Chapel of Priest John at Wadi’Afrit, Jordan. With permission from The American Center of Research, Jordan 77 Fig. 81. City personifications, Hippolytus Hall, Madaba, Jordan. Author 78 Fig. 82. Theodosia and Georgia in the Orpheus Mosaic from Jerusalem, now in the Archaeological Museum. Archaeological Museum. Public Domain. 78 Fig. 83 Mosaic pavement depicting female donors Kissufim, western Negev 578 CE stone and glass IAA 1977-416 Collection of Israel Antiquities Authority Photo © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem by Elie Posner 79 Fig. 84. Mosaic in the Church of St Demetrius, Thessaloniki, Greece. Author 81 Fig. 85. Mosaic in a field at Gasr Bandis in Cyrenaica. Author 82 Fig. 86. Panel showing two women holding offerings. Gasr Bandis, Cyrenaica. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies 82 Fig. 87. Male figure next to the female figures at Gasr Bandis, Cyrenaica. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies 82 Fig. 88. Ananeosis from the Constantinian Villa, Antioch. Now in Hatay Mosaic Museum, Turkey. Author 84 Fig. 89. Tyche mosaic from Beth She’an, Israel. Now in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Author 84 Fig. 90. Votive relief of Gadde from Dura Europos. Public Domain, Yale University Art Gallery 85 Fig. 91. Ananeosis above the eagle in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 85 Fig. 92. Tableau of nine panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 87 Fig. 93. Birds pulling festoons from a basket in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 88 Fig. 94. Daniel with festoons behind him. Pécs (Sopianae), Hungary. Author 88 Fig. 95. Geon in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 96. Phison in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 97. Euphrates in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 98. Tigris in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 90 Fig. 99. Apse mosaic, Hosios David, Thessaloniki. With permission from David Hendrix/The Byzantine Legacy 92 Fig. 100. Two sarcophagi from Sant’Apollinaris in Classe, Ravenna, Italy. Author 93 Fig. 101. Sarcophagus in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, Italy. With permission from Carola Jäggi, Zurich University 93 Fig. 102. Geon in the baptistery at Jabaliyah, Israel. With permission from Jean-Baptiste Humbert 94 Fig. 103. Baptistery at the Episcopal Basilica, Stobi, Macedonia. Author 95 Fig. 104. Apotropaic phalli on a street corner in Leptis Magna, Libya. Author 96 Fig. 105. Phallus carved on a pier outside a cave, thought to have been a Mithraeum, on one of the main streets in Tiddis, Algeria. Author 97 Fig. 106. Naked hunter, Sepphoris, Israel. Author 98 Fig. 107. Border in Basilica A (Basilica of Dometios), Nikopolis, Greece. Photo S. Curtis 99 Fig. 108. The eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 101 Fig. 109. Personification of Kastalia in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 101 Fig. 110. Section of the apse mosaic at Hosios David in Thessaloniki, Greece. With permission from David Hendrix/The Byzantine Legacy 104 Fig. 111. Personification of Summer, in the Byzantine Basilica at Petra, Jordan. Author 105 Fig. 112. Section of south aisle in the Byzantine Basilica at Petra, Jordan. Author 106 Fig. 113. Nave mosaic, Tayibat al-Imam, Syria. Author 107 Fig. 114. Satyr, Musician and Leopard in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 109 Fig. 115. Section of the Sheikh Zouède mosaic, Eretz, Israel. With permission from Marek T. Olszewski 111 Fig. 116. The Pharos in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 114 Fig. 117. Reverse of a Tetradrachm of Commodus. AD 177-92. Public Domain 114 Fig. 118. A Pharos mosaic from Ostia Antica, Italy. Author 115 Fig. 119. Loculus cover from the Coemeterium Jordanorum, Rome. Now in the Vatican Museums. Author 116 Fig. 120. Boat heading for the Pharos in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 116 Fig. 121. Pedimented building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 117 Fig. 122. Ampulla from the Abbey Museum, Bobbio, Italy. Public Domain. 118 Fig. 123. Glass chalice from Palestine, now in the Dumbarton Oaks Museum. With permission from Dumbarton Oaks Museum 118 Fig. 124. Above a door in the south wall of the church at Ras al-Hilal, Cyrenaica. Author 118 Fig. 125. One remaining support for curtain rod above a door in the east wall in Siret el Giambi Monastery, El Beida, Cyrenaica. Author 118 Fig. 126. Polis Nea Theodorias in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 119 Fig. 127. Castellated building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 119 Fig. 128. Plan showing position of castellated building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 120 Fig. 129. The three architectural representations on the central axis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 121 Fig. 130. Ostriches at either end of a row of panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 122 Fig. 131. Horses flanking the pedimented building in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 122 Fig. 132. Sheep flanking inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 123 Fig. 133. Bulls flanking sheep and inscription in the large pavement, Qasr el_Lebia. Author 123 Fig. 134. Bulls flanking a pedestal, Umm Hartain, Syria. With permission from Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar 124 Fig. 135. Lions flanking the eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 125 Fig. 136. Mosaic in Basilica D in Byllis, Albania Byllis. With permission from Neritan Ceka 125 Fig. 137. Stags flanking the lions and the eagle with its prey in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 126 Fig. 138. Stag with a snake in its mouth in the northeast annex, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 127 Fig. 139. Stag with snake in the Great Palace Mosaic, Istanbul. Author 127 Fig. 140. Gazelles flanking Kosmesis, Ktisis and Polis Nea Theodorias in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 128 Fig. 141. Bear in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 128 Fig. 142. Mismatched ‘pair’ of animals in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 129 5. Overall Programme 130 Fig. 143. Large fish at entrance to east end of East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 131 Fig. 144. Entrance to north aisle, Sabratha, Libya. Author 131 Fig. 145. Threshold to south aisle, Basilica A, Amphipolis, Greece. Author 131 Fig. 146. Doorway into the space paved by the large mosaic, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 132 Fig. 147. Panels by the entrance to the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 132 Fig. 148. Arrows marking the symmetry that emerges further west in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 133 Fig. 149. Peacock and wreath on the central axis of the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 134 Fig. 150. Pedimented building marking the change from Ocean to Nile in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 135 Fig. 151. Nilotic and Paradisiacal imagery in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 136 Fig. 152. Honour guard flanking the central axis in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 137 Fig. 153. Tableau of nine panels in the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 138 Fig. 154. Arriving at Polis Nea Theodorias, flanked by Kosmesis and Ktisis. The large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 139 6. Architectural Setting and Hypotheses 140 Fig. 155. Plan of the East Church at Qasr el-Lebia showing the proposed partition. D20/5/10/17 from BILNAS Archive, reproduced with permission from BILNAS. Annotations by author. 140 Fig. 156. Strip of vine scroll mosaic to the west of the large pavement, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 141 Fig. 157. Photograph of showing the small marble tiles. From the Illustrated London News, December 1957 142 Fig. 158. Episcopium chapel, Heraclea Lyncestis, Macedonia. Author 144 Fig. 159. Episcopium chapel, Heraclea Lyncestis, Macedonia. Author 144 Fig. 160. Plan of the East Church Cyrene with location of baptistery and Crocodile/ bull combat scene. From Ward-Perkins, J.B. and R.G. Goodchild 2003. Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica, with permission from the Society of Libyan Studies. Annotations by au 145 Fig. 161. Peacocks by east doorway in northeast annex, East Church, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 146 Fig. 162. Butrint Baptistery. With permission from The Butrint Foundation 147 Fig. 163. Ceiling mosaic in San Giovanni in Fonte, Naples, Italy. Author 148 Fig. 164. Baptistery at Butrint with possible consignatorium. With permission from the Butrint Foundation 149 Fig. 165. Mosaic by door between baptistery and adjacent hall at Butrint. With permission from The Butrint Foundation 149 Fig. 166. Kosmesis and Ktisis at the end of the journey, Qasr el-Lebia. Author 150 Acknowledgements 13 1. Introduction 15 Overview of the Mosaics 15 The Large Mosaic Pavement 17 Pavements in the Northeast Annex and Sanctuary 18 Northeast Annex 18 Sanctuary 18 Dating 26 2. Cyrenaica 34 Geographical Context 34 Christianity in Cyrenaica 35 The Archaeological Site at Qasr el-Lebia 37 West Church 39 East Church 41 3. Reading the Mosaic Pavement 44 Imagery and Literature in Late Antiquity 44 Varietas 46 Layout of the pavement 48 4. Iconographic Analysis 54 Ocean and Nile 54 Ocean 54 Nile 63 Personifications - Kosmesis, Ktitis and Ananeosis 67 Kosmesis and Ktisis 69 Ananeosis 83 The Rivers of Paradise 89 Geon 89 Phison 89 Euphrates 89 Tigris 89 Kastalia and the Eagle 100 Kastalia 100 Castalian Spring at Daphne 101 Castalian Spring at Delphi 102 Kastalia at Qasr el-Lebia 102 The Eagle and its Prey 105 A Musician, a Leopard and a Satyr 108 Architectural Representations 112 Pharos 113 Pedimented Building 115 Polis Nea Theodorias 119 Castellated Building 119 Two-by-Two 120 Ostriches 120 Horses 121 Sheep 122 Bulls 123 Lions 124 Stags 126 Gazelles 127 Anomalies 128 5. Overall Programme 130 The Journey: Wilderness to Paradise 131 Wilderness 131 Paradise 134 6. Architectural Setting and Hypotheses 140 Architectural Setting 140 Hypothesis 1: The Large Mosaic as the Pavement of part of an Episcopium 142 Hypothesis 2: The Large Pavement as Part of a Baptismal Complex 143 Conclusion 150 Bibliography 151 Index 163 Mosaic Pavemants,Late Antiquity,Early Christian Basilicas,Cyrenaica,Baptism,Wilderness,Paradise