From herbs to healing: pharmacognosy - phytochemistry - phytotherapy - biotechnology, 2023

Herbal drugs and medicines are becoming ever more popular in Europe, as in the rest of the world, and theirsignificance in prevention and therapy is also increasing. This is reflected by a considerable rise in the number of herbal drugs, essential oils, fatty oils and products manufactured using simple technologies (e.g. tinctures, extracts) that are now included in pharmacopoeias. As a consequence, much wider knowledge isrequired with respect to their direct use, to their processing intoherbal or traditional drugs, and to their safety. The instrumental techniques now officially prescribed in pharmacopoeias (GC, GC-MS, HPLC, LC-MS, etc.) and new scientific results all make it necessary to expand and review much of our present knowledge. Keeping in view the demands of the 21st century and the need for integration, the professional knowledge of pharmacists and medical researchers must conform with theguidelines laid down in the Good Pharmacy Practice (GPP) recommended by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP).It is not only designed for use by professionals in the fields of pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, phytotherapy,biotechnology, medicine and pharmacy, but also for those members of the public who are increasingly interested inobtaining information which will enable them to enhance their health and well-being. CONTENTS FOREWORD ABBREVIATIONS Chapter I DEVELOPMENTS IN KNOWLEDGE ON ACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF NATURAL ORIGIN. PHARMACOGNOSY IN THE 21ST CENTURY Chapter II QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR HERBAL DRUGS; ANALYTICAL METHODS II.1 CONCEPT OF HERBAL DRUGS; NOMENCLATURE II.2 CULTIVATION, COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS II.2.1 COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS GROWING IN THE WILD II.2.2 CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS II.2.2.1 Introduction of species into cultivation and the aims of breeding II.2.2.2 Basic criteria for cultivation II.2.3 PROCESSING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS II.2.3.1 General criteria II.2.3.2 Preliminary processing – cleansing, comminution, drying II.2.3.3 Storage, packaging II.2.3.4 Quality control II.3 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY II.3.1 General criteria to be met by herbal drugs II.3.2 Preparation stages for the analysis of herbal drugs II.3.3 Screening of plants and herbal drugs II.3.4 Identification of herbal drugs via the chromatographic analysis of their active components II.3.4.1 CONVENTIONAL LAYER AND COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY II.3.4.2 FLASH CHROMATOGRAPHY II.3.5 Modern methods for analysis and structural elucidation II.3.5.1 HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY II.3.5.2 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY II.3.5.2.1 Use of gas chromatography to analyse naturally occurring compounds II.3.5.2.2 Use of gas chromatography for the analysis of non-volatile compounds II.3.5.3 MASS SPECTROMETRY II.3.5.4 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY References (Chapter II) Chapter III BIOSYNTHESIS OF PLANT SUBSTANCES; BIOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS BIOGENETIC SYSTEM OF BIOACTIVE PLANT SUBSTANCES III.1 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF SACCHARIDES III.1.1 Carbohydrates III.1.1.1 MONOSACCHARIDES III.1.1.2 OLIGOSACCHARIDES III.1.1.3 POLYSACCHARIDES III.1.2 Plant acids III.2 PHENOLICS. CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES III.2.1 Aromatic amino acids and simple benzoic acid derivatives III.2.2 Cinnamic acid derivatives III.2.3 Lignans and lignin III.2.4 Phenylpropane derivatives III.2.5 Benzoic acid derivatives originating from cinnamic acid III.2.6 Coumarins III.2.7 Cinnamoyl ketides: styrylpyrones, diarylheptanes, stilbenes III.2.8 FLAVONOIDS III.2.9 Flavanolignans III.2.10 Xanthones III.2.11 Tannins III.2.12 Quinones, naphthoquinones III.2.13 Anthraquinone and naphthodianthrone derivatives III.2.14 Phloroglucin derivatives III.2.15 Cannabinoids III.3 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF POLYKETIDES III.3.1 Biosynthesis of fatty acids III.3.2 Classification of fatty acids III.3.3 Fats, fatty oils and waxes III.3.4 Prostaglandins III.4 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF TERPENOIDS III.4.1 Terpenes in the plant kingdom; their biosynthesis and significance III.4.2 Monoterpenes and essential oils III.4.2.1 BIOSYNTHESIS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MONOTERPENES III.4.2.2 ESSENTIAL OILS III.4.2.2.1 Characteristics of essential oils and their role in the plant kingdom III.4.2.2.2 Selectivity of essential oil extraction methods and their effect on the composition III.4.2.2.3 Authenticity tests on essential oils using chiral (enantioselective) gas chromatography III.4.2.2.4 Significance of essential oils for pharmaceutical and other purposes III.4.3 Non-volatile monoterpene derivatives: iridoids, secoiridoids III.4.4 Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones III.4.5 Diterpenes III.4.5.1 ACYCLIC DITERPENES III.4.5.2 CYCLIC DITERPENES III.4.6 Triterpenes III.4.6.1 BIOSYNTHESIS AND TYPES OF STEROLS AND STEROIDS III.4.6.1.1 Plant sterols (phytosterols) (C27–C29) III.4.6.1.2 Plant steroids III.4.6.2 BIOSYNTHESIS, TYPES AND MAJOR REPRESENTATIVES OF TETRA- AND PENTACYCLIC TRITERPENES III.4.6.2.1 Tetracyclic triterpenes III.4.6.2.2 Pentacyclic triterpenes III.4.7 Tetraterpenes III.5 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF AZOTOIDS III.5.1 Non-alkaloids containing nitrogen (e.g. biogenic amines, peptides) III.5.2 Alkaloids III.5.2.1 ALKALOIDS OF ORNITHINE ORIGIN III.5.2.1.1 Pyrrolidine, tropane and ecgonine alkaloids III.5.2.1.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids III.5.2.2 ALKALOIDS OF LYSINE ORIGIN AND PSEUDOALKALOIDS WITH A PIPERIDINE SKELETON III.5.2.2.1 Piperidine alkaloids III.5.2.2.2 Pseudoalkaloids with a piperidine skeleton III.5.2.2.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids III.5.2.2.4 Indolizidine alkaloids III.5.2.3 PYRIDINE ALKALOIDS DERIVED FROM NICOTINIC ACID III.5.2.4 ALKALOIDS OF PHENYLALANINE AND TYROSINE ORIGIN III.5.2.4.1 Biosynthesis of phenethylamine protoalkaloids III.5.2.4.2. Biosynthesis of simple tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids III.5.2.4.3 Biosynthesis of benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids III.5.2.4.4 Biosynthesis of phenethylisoquinoline alkaloids III.5.2.4.5 Biosynthesis of monoterpenoid isoquinoline alkaloids III.5.2.4.6 Biosynthesis of Amaryllidaceae alkaloids III.5.2.5. ALKALOIDS OF TRYPTOPHAN ORIGIN III.5.2.5.1 Simple indole alkaloids III.5.2.5.2 Simple β-carboline alkaloids III.5.2.5.3 Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids III.5.2.5.4 Pyrrolidinoindole alkaloids III.5.2.5.5 Biosynthesis of hemiterpenoid indole alkaloids III.5.2.6 IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS OF HISTIDINE ORIGIN III.5.2.7 PSEUDOALKALOIDS III.5.2.7.1 Pseudoalkaloids of terpenoid origin III.5.2.7.2 Pseudoalkaloids of nucleotide origin III.5.3 Glycosides of amino acid origin that decompose to form volatile compounds III.5.3.1 CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES III.5.3.2 GLUCOSINOLATES (MUSTARD OIL GLUCOSIDES) References (Chapter III) Chapter IV DISCUSSION OF HERBAL DRUGS BASED ON THE BIOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF THEIR MAIN ACTIVE COMPONENTS IV.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING SACCHARIDES IV.1.1 Herbal drugs containing carbohydrates IV.1.1.1 MONOSACCHARIDES IV.1.1.2 OLIGOSACCHARIDES IV.1.1.3 POLYSACCHARIDES IV.1.1.3.1 Homopolysaccharides IV.1.1.3.2 Heteropolysaccharides IV.1.2 Herbal drugs containing phytoacids IV.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING PHENOLICS IV.2.1 Herbal drugs containing simple benzoic acid and cinnamic acid derivatives IV.2.2 Herbal drugs containing lignans and flavanolignans IV.2.3 Herbal drugs containing coumarins IV.2.4 Herbal drugs containing styrylpyrone, stilbene, diarylheptane and arylalkanone derivatives IV.2.5 Herbal drugs containing flavonoids IV.2.6 Herbal drugs containing tannins IV.2.7 Herbal drugs containing naphthoquinone IV.2.8 Herbal drugs containing anthraquinone derivatives IV.2.9 Herbal drugs containing phloroglucin derivatives IV.2.10 Herbal drug containing terpenophenolics IV.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING POLYKETIDES IV.3.1 Fatty oil herbal drugs IV.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING TERPENOIDS IV.4.1 Monoterpene herbal drugs (aromatics) and volatile oils IV.4.1.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ACYCLIC MONOTERPENES IV.4.1.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING MONOCYCLIC MONOTERPENES IV.4.1.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING BICYCLIC MONOTERPENES IV.4.1.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC MONOTERPENES IV.4.2 Herbal drugs containing sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones (aromatic bitters) IV.4.3 Herbal drugs containing non-volatile monoterpene derivatives IV.4.3.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING SECOIRIDOID BITTER SUBSTANCES (BITTERS) IV.4.3.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING IRIDOIDS IV.4.4 Herbal drugs/spices containing phenylpropane derivatives and their volatile oils and arylalkane derivatives IV.4.5 Herbal drugs containing diterpenes IV.4.6 Herbal drugs containing triterpenes IV.4.6.1 STEROID DRUGS IV.4.6.1.1 Herbal drugs rich in phytosterols and sterol glycosides IV.4.6.1.2 Herbal drugs containing sterols and sterol acids of the lanostane type IV.4.6.1.3 Herbal drugs containing spirostane and furostane steroidal saponins IV.4.6.1.4 Herbal drugs containing cardiac glycosides with a sterane skeleton (cardiotonics) IV.4.6.2 TETRAAND PENTACYCLIC TRITERPENE HERBAL DRUGS IV.4.6.2.1 Herbal drugs containing tetracyclic triterpene saponins of the dammarane type IV.4.6.2.2 Herbal drugs containing pentacyclic triterpene saponins of the α- and β-amyrin type IV.5 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING AZOTOIDS IV.5.1 Nitrogen containing non alkaloid compounds in herbal drugs IV.5.2 Herbal drugs containing alkaloids IV.5.2.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF ORNITHINE ORIGIN IV.5.2.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS WITH PIPERIDINE SKELETONS, ORIGINATING FROM LYSINE IV.5.2.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF NICOTINIC ACID ORIGIN IV.5.2.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF PHENYLALANINE (TYROSINE, DOPA) ORIGIN IV.5.2.5 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF TRYPTOPHAN ORIGIN IV.5.2.6 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS OF HISTIDINE ORIGIN IV.5.2.7 PSEUDOALKALOIDS IV.5.3 Glycoside drugs of amino acid origin, containing nitrogen alone or nitrogen and sulphur, which decompose to form toxic volatile compounds IV.5.3.1 CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES IV.5.3.2 GLUCOSINOLATES (MUSTARD OIL GLUCOSIDES) References (Chapter IV) Chapter V BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF COMPOUNDS OF PLANT ORIGIN V.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PLANT COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO THEIR BIOGENESIS; STRUCTURE–ACTIVITY CORRELATIONS V.1.1 Pharmaceutical research strategies based on natural substances V.1.2 Active ingredients of plant origin; structure–activity correlations V.2 ACTIVE PLANT COMPOUNDS IN THE TREASURE-HOUSE OF MEDICINES; THE PLACE OF PHYTOTHERAPY IN THERAPEUTICS V.2.1 The development of phytotherapy V.2.2 Use of herbal drugs for phytotherapy V.2.3 Active components from medicinal and food plants in targeted cancer therapy V.3 OTHER SIGNIFICANT USES OF MEDICINAL HERBS V.3.1 Medicinal herbs in complementary and traditional pharmaceutical systems V.3.2 Role of nutritive and non-nutritive substances in nutrition V.3.2.1 FUNCTIONAL FOODS, DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS V.3.2.2 MEDICINAL HERBS AS THE RAW MATERIALS OF TEA BLENDS V.3.2.3 HERBAL DRUGS AS HERBS AND SPICES V.3.2.4 IMMUNOSTIMULANT POLYSACCHARIDES IN FUNGI V.3.2.5 BIOLOGICALLY VALUABLE COMPOUNDS IN ALGAE – THE PHARMACOGNOSY OF ALGAE V.4 TOXIC PLANT COMPOUNDS, PLANT POISONING V.4.1 TOXIC PLANTS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE V.4.2 Description of toxic plants, grouped according to the chemical structure of their toxic compounds V.4.2.1 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING PLANT ACIDS AND THEIR ACID DERIVATIVES V.4.2.2 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING PHENOLICS V.4.2.3 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING POLYYNES (POLYACETYLENES) V.4.2.4 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING TERPENE DERIVATIVES V.4.2.4.1 Monoterpenes V.4.2.4.2 Diterpenes V.4.2.4.3 Sesquiterpene lactones V.4.2.4.4 Triterpene/steroid derivatives V.4.2.5 TOXIC PLANTS CONTAINING AZOTOIDS V.4.2.5.1 Amino acids V.4.2.5.2 Lectins, toxic proteins V.4.2.5.3 Cyanogenic compounds V.4.2.5.4 Alkaloids References (Chapter V) Chapter VI PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS USING BIOTECHNOLOGICAL METHODS THE CONCEPT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY, TOTIPOTENCY HIGHER PLANTS AS DRUG SOURCES VI.1 BACKGROUND OF PLANT CELL AND TISSUE CULTURING VI.1.1 Nutrient medium composition VI.1.2 Widely used types of in vitro culture VI.1.3 Special optimisation methods for active component production in in vitro plant cultures VI.1.3.1 ELICITATION VI.1.3.2 PHYSICAL STRESS (E.G. ULTRASOUND) VI.1.3.3 IMMOBILISATION VI.2 PLANT CELL AND TISSUE CULTURES AS SOURCES OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS VI.3 PLANT GENE TECHNOLOGY PROCEDURES VI.3.1 Indirect gene transfer VI.3.2 Direct gene transfer, vectorless techniques VI.3.3 Genome editing, precision breeding VI.4 ACTIVE COMPONENT PRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS DEVELOPED USING GENETIC MODIFICATION (GM) OR GENOME EDITING VI.4.1 Major gene engineering developments that serve the interests of mankind VI.4.2 Farming for Pharmaceuticals / molecular farming VI.4.3 Ethical questions, legal regulation Epilogue References (Chapter VI) Chapter VII APPENDIX Herbal drugs listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) Herbal drug powders listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) Essential oils listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) Vegetable fatty oils, fats and waxes listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) Herbal drug extracts listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) Herbal drug tinctures listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.) INDEX This book is at once heavy and light, comprehensive and extensive, conservative and modern. A broad spectrum of pharmacognosy is presented in a uniquely holistic manner. Numerous color photographs, didactic illustrations, and precise descriptions introduce the herbs found not only in Europe but throughout the world, showing the uses of herbs, their active ingredients, and the chemical structures and biosynthesis of biologically active molecules with beneficial and harmful effects. This excellent, well-presented encyclopedia on medicinal plants also includes descriptions of analytical and structural research and biotechnological methodology. Herbs and active molecules are classified according to the current biogenetic system. Designed for the professional education and training of students, pharmacists, physicians, and chemists, it is equally aimed at a broader scientific audience interested in botany and the analytical chemistry and biochemistry of natural products. In the twenty-first century Pharmacognosy was transformed into a molecular science building on classic botanical and modern chemical knowledge, leading to a better understanding of the complex molecular effect - structure relationships and interactions required for the development of new drugs based on biologically active plant substances.The work demonstrates the place of phytotherapy in healing, the role of herbs in complementary and traditional therapy, and research strategies for the development of drugs of natural plant origin.This book is primarily designed for scientific researchers, but is also very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students in their professional training. As this book discusses herbs from all over the world, it is specifically drafted to be useful not only in Hungary and Europe, but also for people in other continents as an English language encyclopaedia of medicinal plants and their biologically active compounds.