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__For courses in Chemistry.__ **Building 21st Century Data Analysis and Problem-Solving Skills in Modern Chemistry** The **Fourth Edition** of **Niva Tro’s __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__** reinforces development of 21st century skills including data interpretation and analysis, problem solving and quantitative reasoning, applying conceptual understanding to new situations and peer-to-peer collaboration. Nivaldo Tro presents chemistry visually through multi-level images–macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic representations–helping readers see the connections between the world they see around them (macroscopic), the atoms and molecules that compose the world (molecular), and the formulas they write down on paper (symbolic). The benefits of Dr. Tro’s problem-solving approach are reinforced through digital, Interactive Worked Examples that provide an office-hour type of environment and expanded coverage on the latest developments in chemistry. New Key Concept Videos explain difficult concepts while new end-of-chapter problems including Group Work questions and Data Interpretation and Analysis questions engage readers in applying their understanding of chemistry. The revision has been constructed to easily incorporate material to engage readers. **Also available with MasteringChemistry** MasteringChemistry from Pearson is the leading online homework, tutorial, and assessment system, designed to improve results by engaging you before, during, and after class with powerful content. Instructors ensure you arrive ready to learn by assigning educationally effective content before class, and encourage critical thinking and retention with in-class resources such as Learning CatalyticsTM. You can further master concepts after class through traditional and adaptive homework assignments that provide hints and answer-specific feedback. The Mastering gradebook records scores for all automatically graded assignments in one place, while diagnostic tools give instructors access to rich data to assess your understanding and misconceptions. Mastering brings learning full circle by continuously adapting to your learning and making learning more personal than ever–before, during, and after class. **Note:** You are purchasing a standalone product; MasteringChemistry does not come packaged with this content. Students, if interested in purchasing this title with MasteringChemistry, ask your instructor for the correct package ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information. If you would like to purchase both the physical text and MasteringChemistry, search for: **0134103971 / 9780134103976 __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__ Plus MasteringChemistry with eText -- Access Card Package.** **Package consists of:** * **0134112830 / 9780134112831 __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__** * **0134126424 / 9780134126425 MasteringChemistry with Pearson eText -- ValuePack Access Card -- for __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__** Cover 1 Title Page 2 Copyright Page 3 ABOUT THE AUTHOR 4 Acknowledgments 23 Contents 8 PREFACE 21 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving 39 1.1 Atoms and Molecules 40 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge 42 The Nature of Science: Thomas S. Kuhn and Scientific 44 1.3 The Classification of Matter 44 The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas 45 Classifying Matter according to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 46 Separating Mixtures 47 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties 48 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change 51 1.6 The Units of Measurement 52 Standard Units 52 The Meter: A Measure of Length 53 The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass 53 The Second: A Measure of Time 53 The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature 54 Prefix Multipliers 56 Derived Units: Volume and Density 56 Calculating Density 58 Chemistry and Medicine: Bone Density 59 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement 59 Counting Significant Figures 61 Exact Numbers 61 Significant Figures in Calculations 62 Precision and Accuracy 64 Chemistry in Your Day: Integrity in Data Gathering 65 1.8 Solving Chemical Problems 65 Converting from One Unit to Another 65 General Problem-Solving Strategy 67 Units Raised to a Power 69 Order-of-Magnitude Estimations 70 Problems Involving an Equation 71 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 72 Key Terms 73 Key Concepts 74 Key Equations and Relationships 74 Key Learning Outcomes 75 EXERCISES: Review Questions 75 Problems by Topic 75 Cumulative Problems 79 Challenge Problems 80 Conceptual Problems 81 Questions for Group Work 81 Data Interpretation and Analysis 82 Answers to Conceptual Connections 82 2 Atoms and Elements 83 2.1 Brownian Motion: Atoms Comfirmed 84 2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter 86 2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It 86 The Law of Conservation of Mass 86 The Law of Definite Proportions 87 The Law of Multiple Proportions 88 John Dalton and the Atomic Theory 89 Chemistry in Your Day: Atoms and Humans 89 2.4 The Discovery of the Electron 90 Cathode Rays 90 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron 91 2.5 The Structure of the Atom 92 2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms 94 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons 95 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies 96 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 98 Chemistry in Your Day: Where Did Elements Come From? 99 2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table 99 Modern Periodic Table Organization 101 Ions and the Periodic Table 103 Chemistry and Medicine: The Elements of Life 104 2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms 104 Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules 105 Chemistry in Your Day: Evolving Atomic Masses 107 2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them 108 The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” 108 Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms 109 Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) 110 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 113 Key Terms 114 Key Concepts 115 Key Equations and Relationships 115 Key Learning Outcomes 116 EXERCISES: Review Questions 116 Problems by Topic 117 Cumulative Problems 120 Challenge Problems 121 Conceptual Problems 122 Questions for Group Work 122 Data Interpretation and Analysis 123 Answers to Conceptual Connections 124 3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations 125 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 126 3.2 Chemical Bonds 128 Ionic Bonds 128 Covalent Bonds 129 3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models 129 Types of Chemical Formulas 129 Molecular Models 131 3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds 131 3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names 135 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 135 Naming Ionic Compounds 136 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation 137 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation 138 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 139 Hydrated Ionic Compounds 140 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 140 Naming Molecular Compounds 141 Naming Acids 142 Naming Binary Acids 142 Naming Oxyacids 143 Chemistry in the Environment: Acid Rain 143 3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature 144 3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds 146 Molar Mass of a Compound 146 Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing 146 3.9 Composition of Compounds 148 Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor 149 Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas 151 Chemistry and Medicine: Methylmercury in Fish 153 3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data 153 Determining Molecular Formulas for Compounds 155 Combustion Analysis 156 3.11 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 158 3.12 Organic Compounds 162 Hydrocarbons 163 Functionalized Hydrocarbons 164 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-assessment Quiz 166 Key Terms 166 Key Concepts 167 Key Equations and Relationships 167 Key Learning Outcomes 168 EXERCISES: Review Questions 168 Problems by Topic 169 Cumulative Problems 173 Challenge Problems 174 Conceptual Problems 174 Questions for Group Work 174 Data Interpretation and Analysis 175 Answers to Conceptual Connections 175 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions 177 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels 178 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? 180 Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients 180 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 180 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 181 4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 184 Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 185 Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses 186 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 190 Solution Concentration 190 Using Molarity in Calculations 192 Solution Dilution 193 Solution Stoichiometry 195 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility 197 Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions 197 The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 199 4.6 Precipitation Reactions 201 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations 205 4.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions 206 Acid–Base Reactions 207 Gas-Evolution Reactions 212 4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 214 Oxidation States 215 Identifying Redox Reactions 217 Chemistry in Your Day: Bleached Blonde 220 Combustion Reactions 220 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-assessment Quiz 221 Key Terms 222 Key Concepts 223 Key Equations and Relationships 224 Key Learning Outcomes 224 EXERCISES: Review Questions 225 Problems by Topic 225 Cumulative Problems 229 Challenge Problems 231 Conceptual Problems 231 Questions for Group Work 232 Data Interpretation and Analysis 233 Answers to Conceptual Connections 234 5 Gases 235 5.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of Decompression 236 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions 237 Pressure Units 238 The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory 239 Chemistry and Medicine: Blood Pressure 240 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law 240 Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 241 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 243 Chemistry in Your Day: Extra-Long Snorkels 244 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) 246 5.4 The Ideal Gas Law 247 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas 250 Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure 250 Density of a Gas 251 Molar Mass of a Gas 252 5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures 253 Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures 256 Collecting Gases over Water 258 5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited 260 Molar Volume and Stoichiometry 261 5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases 263 How Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains Pressure and the Simple Gas Laws 264 Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law 265 Temperature and Molecular Velocities 266 5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases 269 5.10 real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces 271 The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles 272 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 273 Van der Waals Equation 274 Real Gases 274 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 275 Key Terms 276 Key Concepts 276 Key Equations and Relationships 277 Key Learning Outcomes 277 EXERCISES: Review Questions 278 Problems by Topic 279 Cumulative Problems 282 Challenge Problems 284 Conceptual Problems 284 Questions for Group Work 285 Data Interpretation and Analysis 285 Answers to Conceptual Connections 286 6 Thermochemistry 287 6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 288 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions 289 Types of Energy 289 Energy Conservation and Energy Transfer 290 Units of Energy 290 6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch 292 Internal Energy 292 Chemistry in Your Day: Redheffer’s Perpetual Motion Machine 292 Heat and Work 295 6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work 297 Heat 297 Work: Pressure–Volume Work 301 6.5 Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry 303 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure 306 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View 308 Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations 308 6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH[Sub(rxn)] 309 6.8 Relationships Involving ΔH[Sub(rxn)] 311 6.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation 314 Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes 314 Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 316 6.10 Energy Use and the Environment 319 Energy Consumption 319 Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil Fuel Use 320 Air Pollution 320 Global Climate Change 321 Chemistry in the Environment: Renewable Energy 323 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 324 Key Terms 325 Key Concepts 325 Key Equations and Relationships 326 Key Learning Outcomes 326 EXERCISES: Review Questions 327 Problems by Topic 328 Cumulative Problems 331 Challenge Problems 332 Conceptual Problems 332 Questions for Group Work 333 Data Interpretation and Analysis 333 Answers to Conceptual Connections 334 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 335 7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat 336 7.2 The Nature of Light 337 The Wave Nature of Light 338 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 340 Chemistry and Medicine: Radiation Treatment for Cancer 342 Interference and Diffraction 342 The Particle Nature of Light 344 7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model 347 Chemistry in Your Day: Atomic Spectroscopy, a Bar Code for Atoms 349 7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy 350 The de Broglie Wavelength 352 The Uncertainty Principle 353 Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps 354 7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom 356 Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom 356 Atomic Spectroscopy Explained 359 7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 362 s Orbitals (l=0) 362 p Orbitals (l=1) 365 d Orbitals (l=2) 365 f Orbitals (l=3) 365 The Phase of Orbitals 366 The Shape of Atoms 367 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 367 Key Terms 368 Key Concepts 368 Key Equations and Relationships 369 Key Learning Outcomes 369 EXERCISES: Review Questions 369 Problems by Topic 370 Cumulative Problems 371 Challenge Problems 372 Conceptual Problems 373 Questions for Group Work 373 Data Interpretation and Analysis 373 Answers to Conceptual Connections 374 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements 375 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission 376 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 377 8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals 378 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 379 Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms 380 Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms 383 8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table 386 Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table 387 Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table 388 The Transition and Inner Transition Elements 389 8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 390 8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge 391 Effective Nuclear Charge 392 Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements 394 8.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy 396 Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions 396 Ionic Radii 398 Ionization Energy 400 Trends in First Ionization Energy 400 Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy 402 Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies 403 8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character 404 Electron Affinity 404 Metallic Character 405 8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behavior: The Alkali Metals, the Halogens, and the Noble Gases 408 The Alkali Metals (Group 1A) 408 The Halogens (Group 7A) 409 The Noble Gases (Group 8A) 410 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 411 Key Terms 412 Key Concepts 413 Key Equations and Relationships 413 Key Learning Outcomes 414 EXERCISES: Review Questions 414 Problems by Topic 415 Cumulative Problems 417 Challenge Problems 418 Conceptual Problems 418 Questions for Group Work 419 Data Interpretation and Analysis 419 Answers to Conceptual Connections 420 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model 421 9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 422 9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds 423 9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 425 9.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies 426 Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer 426 Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story 427 The Born–Haber Cycle 427 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size 430 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge 430 Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality 431 Chemistry and Medicine: Ionic Compounds in Medicine 432 9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures 433 Single Covalent Bonds 433 Double and Triple Covalent Bonds 433 Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality 434 9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 435 Electronegativity 436 Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character 437 9.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions 439 Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 439 Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 441 9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge 441 Resonance 441 Formal Charge 443 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets 446 Odd-Electron Species 447 Incomplete Octets 447 Chemistry in the Environment: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner 448 Expanded Octets 449 9.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths 450 Bond Energy 451 Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions 452 Bond Lengths 453 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model 454 Chemistry in the Environment: The Lewis Structure of Ozone 455 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 456 Key Terms 457 Key Concepts 457 Key Equations and Relationships 458 Key Learning Outcomes 458 EXERCISES: Review Questions 459 Problems by Topic 460 Cumulative Problems 461 Challenge Problems 463 Conceptual Problems 463 Questions for Group Work 463 Data Interpretation and Analysis 464 Answers to Conceptual Connections 464 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 465 10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 466 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes 467 Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry 468 Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry 468 Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry 468 Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry 470 Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry 470 10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs 471 Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 471 Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 473 Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 474 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries 476 Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper 478 Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules 478 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity 479 Vector Addition 481 Chemistry in Your Day: How Soap Works 483 10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 484 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 486 sp[Sup(3)] Hybridization 487 sp[Sup(2)] Hybridization and Double Bonds 489 Chemistry in Your Day: The Chemistry of Vision 493 sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds 493 sp[Sup(3)] d and sp[Sup(3)] d[Sup(2)] Hybridization 495 Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes 496 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization 499 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAOs) 500 Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 504 Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 509 Polyatomic Molecules 511 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 512 Key Terms 513 Key Concepts 513 Key Equations and Relationships 513 Key Learning Outcomes 514 EXERCISES: Review Questions 514 Problems by Topic 515 Cumulative Problems 517 Challenge Problems 519 Conceptual Problems 520 Questions for Group Work 520 Data Interpretation and Analysis 521 Answers to Conceptual Connections 521 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 523 11.1 Water, No Gravity 524 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison 525 Differences between States of Matter 525 Changes between States 527 11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together 528 Dispersion Force 529 Dipole–Dipole Force 531 Hydrogen Bonding 534 Ion–Dipole Force 536 Chemistry and Medicine: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA 537 11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action 538 Surface Tension 538 Viscosity 540 Chemistry in Your Day: Viscosity and Motor Oil 540 Capillary Action 540 11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure 541 The Process of Vaporization 541 The Energetics of Vaporization 542 Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium 544 The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter 550 11.6 Sublimation and Fusion 551 Sublimation 551 Fusion 552 Energetics of Melting and Freezing 552 11.7 Heating Curve for Water 553 11.8 Phase Diagrams 556 The Major Features of a Phase Diagram 556 Navigation within a Phase Diagram 557 The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances 558 11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance 559 Chemistry in the Environment: Water Pollution 560 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 561 Key Terms 562 Key Concepts 562 Key Equations and Relationships 563 Key Learning Outcomes 563 EXERCISES: Review Questions 563 Problems by Topic 564 Cumulative Problems 567 Challenge Problems 567 Conceptual Problems 568 Questions for Group Work 568 Data Interpretation and Analysis 569 Answers to Conceptual Connections 570 12 Solids and Modern Materials 571 12.1 Friday Night Experiments: The Discovery of Graphene 572 12.2 X-Ray Crystallography 573 12.3 Unit Cells and Basic Structures 576 Cubic Unit Cells 576 Closest-Packed Structures 582 12.4 The Fundamental Types of Crystalline Solids 583 Molecular Solids 584 Chemistry in Your Day: Chocolate, An Edible Material 585 Ionic Solids 586 Atomic Solids 586 12.5 The Structures of Ionic Solids 587 12.6 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates 589 Carbon 589 Silicates 592 12.7 Ceramics, Cement, and Glass 592 Ceramics 592 Cement 593 Glass 594 12.8 Semiconductors and Band Theory 594 Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands 594 Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors 596 12.9 Polymers and Plastics 596 Chemistry in Your Day: Kevlar 599 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 599 Key Terms 600 Key Concepts 601 Key Equations and Relationships 601 Key Learning Outcomes 601 EXERCISES: Review Questions 602 Problems by Topic 602 Cumulative Problems 605 Challenge Problems 606 Conceptual Problems 606 Questions for Group Work 607 Data Interpretation and Analysis 607 Answers to Conceptual Connections 608 13 Solutions 609 13.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 610 13.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility 612 Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy 613 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 613 13.3 Energetics of Solution Formation 616 Energy Changes in Solution Formation 617 Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration 618 13.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility 620 The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids 621 Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water 622 13.5 Expressing Solution Concentration 624 Chemistry in the Environment: Lake Nyos 625 Molarity 625 Molality 627 Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume 627 Using Parts by Mass (or Parts by Volume) in Calculations 627 Mole Fraction and Mole Percent 628 Chemistry in the Environment: The Dirty Dozen 629 13.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure 632 Vapor Pressure Lowering 632 Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute 636 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation 639 Chemistry in Your Day: Antifreeze in Frogs 642 Osmotic Pressure 642 13.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 644 Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure 645 Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions 646 13.8 Colloids 647 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 650 Key Terms 651 Key Concepts 651 Key Equations and Relationships 652 Key Learning Outcomes 652 EXERCISES: Review Questions 653 Problems by Topic 653 Cumulative Problems 657 Challenge Problems 658 Conceptual Problems 658 Questions for Group Work 659 Data Interpretation and Analysis 659 Answers to Conceptual Connections 660 14 Chemical Kinetics 661 14.1 Catching Lizards 662 14.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction 663 Definition of Reaction Rate 663 Measuring Reaction Rates 666 14.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 668 The Three Common Reaction Orders (n= 0, 1, and 2) 668 Determining the Order of a Reaction 669 Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants 671 14.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time 673 The Integrated Rate Law 673 The Half-Life of a Reaction 677 14.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 681 The Arrhenius Equation 681 The Activation Energy, Frequency Factor, and Exponential Factor 682 Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy 683 The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor 686 14.6 Reaction Mechanisms 687 Rate Laws for Elementary Steps 688 Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws 689 Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 690 14.7 Catalysis 692 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis 694 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 695 Chemistry and Medicine: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role of Chymotrypsin in Digestion 697 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 698 Key Terms 700 Key Concepts 700 Key Equations and Relationships 701 Key Learning Outcomes 701 EXERCISES: Review Questions 702 Problems by Topic 702 Cumulative Problems 707 Challenge Problems 709 Conceptual Problems 710 Questions for Group Work 711 Data Interpretation and Analysis 711 Answers to Conceptual Connections 712 15 Chemical Equilibrium 713 15.1 fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium 714 15.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium 716 15.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K) 719 Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions 719 The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant 720 Chemistry and Medicine: Life and Equilibrium 721 Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation 722 15.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure 723 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids 726 15.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations 727 15.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change 730 15.8 finding Equilibrium Concentrations 732 Relationship Between K[Sub(p)] and K[Sub(c)] 724 Units of K 725 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products 733 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures 734 Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems 738 15.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances 742 The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium 743 The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium 745 The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium 747 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 749 Key Terms 750 Key Concepts 750 Key Equations and Relationships 751 Key Learning Outcomes 751 EXERCISES: Review Questions 752 Problems by Topic 753 Cumulative Problems 756 Challenge Problems 757 Conceptual Problems 758 Questions for Group Work 758 Data Interpretation and Analysis 759 Answers to Conceptual Connections 760 16 Acids and Bases 761 16.1 Heartburn 762 16.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 763 16.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases 765 The Arrhenius Definition 765 The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 766 16.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)] 768 Strong Acids 768 Weak Acids 769 The Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)]) 770 16.5 Autoionization of Water and pH 771 The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity 773 pOH and Other p Scales 774 Chemistry and Medicine: Ulcers 775 16.6 Finding the [H[Sub(3)]O[Sup(+)]] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions 776 Strong Acids 776 Weak Acids 776 Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid 781 Mixtures of Acids 782 16.7 Base Solutions 785 Strong Bases 785 Weak Bases 785 Finding the [OH[Sup(-)]] and pH of Basic Solutions 787 Chemistry and Medicine: What’s in My Antacid? 789 16.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts 789 Anions as Weak Bases 790 Cations as Weak Acids 793 Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 794 16.9 Polyprotic Acids 796 Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions 797 Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution 799 16.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure 801 Binary Acids 801 Oxyacids 802 16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 803 Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids 803 Cations That Act as Lewis Acids 804 16.12 Acid Rain 804 Effects of Acid Rain 805 Acid Rain Legislation 806 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 806 Key Terms 807 Key Concepts 807 Key Equations and Relationships 808 Key Learning Outcomes 809 EXERCISES: Review Questions 809 Problems by Topic 810 Cumulative Problems 813 Challenge Problems 814 Conceptual Problems 815 Questions for Group Work 815 Data Interpretation and Analysis 815 Answers to Conceptual Connections 816 17 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium 817 17.1 The Danger of Antifreeze 818 17.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change 819 Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution 821 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation 822 Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution 825 Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid 829 17.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity 830 Relative Amounts of Acid and Base 830 Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base 831 Buffer Range 832 Chemistry and Medicine: Buffer Effectiveness in Human Blood 833 Buffer Capacity 833 17.4 Titrations and pH Curves 834 The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 835 The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 839 The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 844 The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid 844 Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors 845 17.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant 848 K[Sub(sp)] and Molar Solubility 848 Chemistry in Your Day: Hard Water 850 K[Sub(sp)] and Relative Solubility 851 The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 851 The Effect of pH on Solubility 853 17.6 Precipitation 854 Selective Precipitation 855 17.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis 857 Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides 858 Group 2: Acid-Insoluble Sulfides 858 Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides and Hydroxides 859 Group 4: Insoluble Phosphates 859 Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH[Sub(4)][Sup(+)] 859 17.8 Complex Ion Equilibria 860 The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility 862 The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides 863 CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz 864 Key Terms 865 Key Concepts 865 Key Equations and Relationships 866 Key Learning Outcomes 866 EXERCISES: Review Questions 867 Problems by Topic 868 Cumulative Problems 873 Challenge Problems 874 Conceptual Problems 874 Questions for Group Work 875 Data Interpretation and Analysis 875 Answers to Conceptual Connections 876 18 Free Energy and Thermodynamics 877 18.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even 878 18.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 880 18.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 882 Entropy 883 The Entropy Change upon the Expansion of an Ideal Gas 885 18.4 Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes 887 Entropy and State Change: The Concept 888 Entropy and State Changes: The Calculation 889 18.5 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings 891 The Temperature Dependence of ΔS[Sub(surr)] 892 Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 893 18.6 Gibbs Free Energy 894 The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity 895 18.7 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ ̨S°[Sub(rxn)] 898 Defining Standard States and Standard Entropy Changes 898 Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 898 Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (ΔS°[Sub(rxn)]) for a Reaction 902 18.8 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ ̨G°[Sub(rxn)] 902 Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with ΔG°[Sub(rxn)] =ΔH°[Sub(rxn)] -TΔS°[Sub(rxn)] 903 Calculating ΔG°[Sub(rxn)] with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation 904 Chemistry in Your Day: Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous 906 Calculating ΔG°[Sub(rxn)] for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps 906 Why Free Energy Is “Free” 907 18.9 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between Δ ̨G°[Sub(rxn)] and Δ ̨G[Sub(rxn)] 909 Standard versus Nonstandard States 909 The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Condi