From Atoms to Higgs Bosons : Voyages in Quasi-Spacetime

The announcement in 2012 that the Higgs boson had been discovered was understood as a watershed moment for the Standard Model of particle physics. It was deemed a triumphant event in the reductionist quest that had begun centuries ago with the ancient Greek natural philosophers. Physicists basked in the satisfaction of explaining to the world that the ultimate cause of mass in our universe had been unveiled at CERN, Switzerland. The Standard Model of particle physics is now understood by many to have arrived at a satisfactory description of entities and interactions on the smallest physical scales: elementary quarks, leptons, and intermediary gauge bosons residing within a four-dimensional spacetime continuum. Throughout the historical journey of reductionist physics, mathematics has played an increasingly dominant role. Indeed, abstract mathematics has now become indispensable in guiding our discovery of the physical world. Elementary particles are endowed with abstract existence in accordance with their appearance in complicated equations. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, originally intended to estimate practical measurement uncertainties, now bequeaths a numerical fuzziness to the structure of reality. Particle physicists have borrowed effective mathematical tools originally invented and employed by condensed matter physicists to approximate the complex structures and dynamics of solids and liquids and bestowed on them the authority to define basic physical reality. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a result of these kinds of strategies, used by particle physicists to take the latest steps on the reductionist quest. This book offers a constructive critique of the modern orthodoxy into which all aspiring young physicists are now trained, that the ever-evolving mathematical models of modern physics are leading us toward a truer understanding of the real physical world. The authors propose that among modern physicists, physical realism has been largely replaced―in actual practice―by __quasirealism__, a problematic philosophical approach that interprets the statements of abstract, effective mathematical models as providing direct information about reality. History may judge that physics in the twentieth century, despite its seeming successes, involved a profound deviation from the historical reductionist voyage to fathom the mysteries of the physical universe. Cover Half Title Tilte Page Copyright Page Dedication Contents Preface Introduction 1. The Reductionist Vision of Physics 1.1 Reductionism 1.2 Our View of the World 1.3 Democritus’ Atoms 1.4 Properties of Atoms in Early Physics 1.5 The Descent into the Quark Model 1.6 Contemporary Catalogue of Physical Things 1.7 Have We Reached the Bottom? 1.8 Defining the Bottom Rung of the Ladder 1.9 Are Quarks Really at the Bottom? 2. Quasirealism 2.1 Common Sense 2.2 Mathematics at the Centre 2.3 Quasiparticles 2.4 Quasirealism Defined 2.5 Against Quasirealism 2.6 Quasirealism and the Theory of Everything 2.7 Concluding Thoughts 3. Space, Time, and Relativity 3.1 Ancient Concepts of Space and Time 3.2 Philosophizing on Space and Time 3.3 Newton’s Absolute Space 3.4 Lines of Force and Fields 3.5 The Aether 3.6 Lorentz–FitzGerald Contraction 3.7 Special Relativity 3.8 General Relativity 3.9 Concluding Remarks 4. Mathematical Spaces 4.1 Space and N-Dimensional Spaces 4.2 Space and Geometry 4.3 Complex Numbers and Imaginary Planes 4.4 Minkowski Spacetime 4.5 Phase Space 4.6 Hilbert Space 4.7 String Theories and Multidimensional Space 5. Mass 5.1 Mass and Weight 5.2 Mass and Relativity 5.3 Mass of Small Things 5.4 Modern Mass Measurements of Subatomic Particles 5.5 Mass of Short-Lived Particles 5.6 Mass of Resonances 5.7 Mass of Quarks 5.8 Mass of Higgs Boson 5.9 Concluding Remarks on Mass 6. Quantum Physics 6.1 Statistical Microphysics and Waves 6.2 Quantum Theory of the Atom 6.3 What Evolves in Quantum Theory? 7. When Is an Atom? 7.1 The Classical Atom 7.2 The Divisible Chemical Atom 7.3 Protons and Neutrons Are Particles, but Are They Fundamental? 7.4 The Electron Is Fundamental, but Is It Still a Particle? 7.5 The Electron of Wave Mechanics 7.6 Niels Bohr’s Instrumentalist View 7.7 Electrons in Quantum Electrodynamics 7.8 Electrons in Bulk Matter 7.9 In Summary: We May Still Have Atoms 8. Elementary Quanta 8.1 Fermions, Bosons, Quarks, and Leptons 8.2 Quarks and Leptons Are Really Very Different 8.3 On the Reality of Neutrinos 8.4 On the Reality of Quarks 8.5 The Gauge Bosons 8.6 Summary 9. What Is a Photon? 9.1 Problem of Blackbody Radiation 9.2 Photoelectric Effect 9.3 Waves and Particles, Real and Virtual 9.4 Other Lives of Photons 9.5 Photons and Electroweak Unification 9.6 Are Photons Phoenixes? 9.7 Finally, What Are Photons? 10. Symmetries, Conservation Laws, and Gauge Bosons 10.1 Symmetry and Gauge 10.2 Gauge Invariance and Electromagnetism 10.3 Symmetry and Isospin 10.4 Mixing of Matter and Interactions 10.5 Conclusion 11. Higgs Boson 11.1 Knowing What We Cannot See 11.2 Searching for the Higgs Boson 11.3 Higgs Discovery 11.4 Particle or Resonance? 11.5 What Does the Higgs Boson Contribute? 11.6 Conclusion Epilogue Appendix: Epitaph for All Photons Index "For millennia, natural philosophers and scientists have been actively engaged in the reductionist quest to specify the fundamental building blocks of matter and discern the dynamics of physical reality. During the last one hundred years, physicists have intensified this search, probing the deep interior of atoms, nuclei and the entities of which these are composed. Their progress in this endeavour was highlighted by the announced discovery of the Higgs boson, a watershed moment for particle physics. All of this, however, has come at a cost: an increasingly abstract, inherently mathematical description of nature at its most basic level. This book is an assessment of this cost, and a critique of the modern orthodoxy that the ever-evolving models of particle physics are leading us towards a truer understanding of the real world. We propose that the ancient reductionist quest has been unintentionally side-lined by quasirealism, a philosophical approach to interpreting reductionist scientific models that finds reality hiding in places where it might not actually be." -- Provided by Publisher's Website For Millennia, Natural Philosophers And Scientists Have Been Actively Engaged In The Reductionist Quest To Specify The Fundamental Building Blocks Of Matter And Discern The Dynamics Of Physical Reality. During The Last One Hundred Years, Physicists Have Intensified This Search, Probing The Deep Interior Of Atoms, Nuclei, And The Entities Of Which These Are Composed. Their Progress In This Endeavor Was Highlighted By The Announced Discovery Of The Higgs Boson, A Watershed Moment For Particle Physics. All Of This, However, Has Come At A Cost: An Increasingly Abstract, Inherently Mathematical Description Of Nature At Its Most Basic Level. This Book Is An Assessment Of This Cost And Critiques The Modern Orthodoxy That The Ever-evolving Models Of Particle Physics Are Leading Us Towards A Truer Understanding Of The Real World. The Authors Propose That The Ancient Reductionist Quest Has Been Unintentionally Side-lined By Quasirealism, A Philosophical Approach To Interpreting Reductionist Scientific Models That Finds Reality Hiding In Places Where It Might Not Actually Be.