Frequency Synthesizers: From Concept to Product (Artech House Microwave Library)

[sub][/sub] A frequency synthesizer is an electronic system for generating any of a range of frequencies from a single fixed oscillator. They are found in modern devices like radio receivers, mobile phones, and GPS systems. This comprehensive resource offers RF and microwave engineers a thorough overview of both well-established and recently developed frequency synthesizer design techniques. Professionals find expert guidance on all design aspects, including main architectures, key building blocks, and practical circuit implementation. Engineers learn the development process and gain a solid understanding of how to build a synthesizer from a basic diagram to the final product. Starting with a simple single-loop PLL example, the book progressively examines various alternatives – fractional-N, DDS, frequency offset, multiloop and more to achieve required performance objectives. This unique volume gathers a collection of block diagrams, clever circuits, design recipes, and other hard-to-find information that is usually treated as design secrets . Written in a simple yet rigorous style with numerous illustrations, the book is an all-in-one reference for both beginner and experienced designers. Frequency Synthesizers: Concept to Product......Page 2 Contents......Page 8 Preface......Page 14 1.1 Frequency Synthesizer Concept......Page 18 1.2.1 Frequency and Timing......Page 20 1.2.2 Spectral Purity......Page 22 1.2.3 RF Output Power......Page 29 1.3 Form Factors and Applications......Page 31 1.4.1 Parallel Interface......Page 33 1.4.2 SPI......Page 34 1.4.5 USB......Page 37 1.4.7 VXI......Page 38 1.4.8 PXI......Page 39 1.4.9 LXI......Page 40 1.5 Main Architectures......Page 41 1.5.1 Direct Analog Synthesizers......Page 42 1.5.2 Direct Digital Synthesizers......Page 48 1.5.3 Indirect Synthesizers......Page 52 References......Page 55 2.1 Oscillators......Page 58 2.1.1 Phase Noise in Microwave Oscillators......Page 59 2.1.2 Resonators......Page 62 2.1.4 Active Devices......Page 70 2.1.5 Noise Reduction Techniques......Page 71 2.2.1 Frequency Multiplication......Page 75 2.2.2 Single-Diode Multipliers......Page 76 2.2.3 Balanced Diode Multipliers......Page 77 2.2.5 Digital Logic Multipliers......Page 79 2.2.6 Step-Recovery-Diode Multipliers......Page 80 2.3 Frequency Dividers......Page 81 2.3.1 Digital Dividers......Page 82 2.4 Frequency Mixers......Page 86 2.4.1 Frequency Mixing......Page 87 2.4.2 Harmonic Mixers......Page 88 2.4.3 Image-Reject Mixers......Page 89 2.4.4 IQ-Modulators......Page 90 2.5.1 Balanced Mixer......Page 91 2.5.3 Exclusive-OR Gate......Page 92 2.5.5 Phase-Frequency Detector......Page 93 2.5.6 Integrated PLL Components......Page 96 References......Page 99 3.1.1 Transmission Line Basics......Page 104 3.1.2 Transmission Line Types......Page 106 3.1.3 Microwave Materials......Page 109 3.1.5 Coupling......Page 112 3.1.6 Distributed and Lumped Elements......Page 113 3.2 Chip-and-Wire Approach......Page 114 3.3 Printed Circuit Board......Page 115 3.4.1 Electrical Interface......Page 118 3.4.3 Shielding......Page 120 3.4.4 Mounting and Heat Sinking......Page 123 References......Page 124 4.1 Specifications......Page 126 4.2 Block Diagram......Page 127 4.3 Schematic......Page 133 4.4 Board Layout......Page 150 4.5 Assembly......Page 151 4.6 Mechanical Design......Page 152 4.7 Control Software......Page 153 4.8 Troubleshooting......Page 155 4.9 Testing......Page 158 4.10 Documentation......Page 162 References......Page 163 5.1 Performance Trade-Offs......Page 166 5.2 Fractional-N......Page 168 5.3 Using a DDS......Page 172 5.4 Frequency Offset Schemes......Page 175 5.5 Multiloop Architectures......Page 180 5.6 Frequency Acquisition......Page 181 5.7 Lock Monitoring......Page 186 5.8 Fast-Switching Designs......Page 187 5.9 VCO or YIG?......Page 189 5.10 Reference Generation and Distribution......Page 193 5.11 Filtering Harmonics......Page 194 5.12 Frequency Extension......Page 198 References......Page 201 6.1 Frequency Stability and Synchronization......Page 204 6.2.1 Blanking......Page 208 6.2.2 Frequency Sweep......Page 209 6.3.1 Open-Loop Control......Page 211 6.3.2 Closed-Loop Control......Page 213 6.3.4 Power Sweep......Page 214 6.4.1 Pulse Modulation......Page 215 6.4.2 Amplitude Modulation......Page 217 6.4.3 Frequency and Phase Modulation......Page 218 6.4.4 Complex Modulation......Page 221 References......Page 223 About the Author......Page 224 Index......Page 226 Frequency Synthesizers: Concept to Product 2 Contents 8 Preface 14 1 Parameters and Architectures 18 1.1 Frequency Synthesizer Concept 18 1.2 Main Parame 20 1.2.1 Frequency and Timing 20 1.2.2 Spectral Purity 22 1.2.3 RF Output Power 29 1.2.4 Other Parameters 31 1.3 Form Factors and Applications 31 1.4 Control Interfaces 33 1.4.1 Parallel Interface 33 1.4.2 SPI 34 1.4.3 I2C 37 1.4.4 RS-232 37 1.4.5 USB 37 1.4.6 GPIB 38 1.4.7 VXI 38 1.4.8 PXI 39 1.4.9 LXI 40 1.4.10 AXIe 41 1.5 Main Architectures 41 1.5.1 Direct Analog Synthesizers 42 1.5.2 Direct Digital Synthesizers 48 1.5.3 Indirect Synthesizers 52 References 55 2 Building Blocks 58 2.1 Oscillators 58 2.1.1 Phase Noise in Microwave Oscillators 59 2.1.2 Resonators 62 2.1.3 Coupling 70 2.1.4 Active Devices 70 2.1.5 Noise Reduction Techniques 71 2.2 Frequency Multipliers 75 2.2.1 Frequency Multiplication 75 2.2.2 Single-Diode Multipliers 76 2.2.3 Balanced Diode Multipliers 77 2.2.4 Antiparallel Diode Multiplier 79 2.2.5 Digital Logic Multipliers 79 2.2.6 Step-Recovery-Diode Multipliers 80 2.2.7 Varactor Multipliers 81 2.2.8 Transistor Multipliers 81 2.3 Frequency Dividers 81 2.3.1 Digital Dividers 82 2.3.2 Analog Dividers 86 2.4 Frequency Mixers 86 2.4.1 Frequency Mixing 87 2.4.2 Harmonic Mixers 88 2.4.3 Image-Reject Mixers 89 2.4.4 IQ-Modulators 90 2.5 Phase Detectors 91 2.5.1 Balanced Mixer 91 2.5.2 Sampling Mixer 92 2.5.3 Exclusive-OR Gate 92 2.5.4 Flip-Flop 93 2.5.5 Phase-Frequency Detector 93 2.5.6 Integrated PLL Components 96 References 99 3 Synthesizer Construction 104 3.1 Transmission Lines and Distributed Elements 104 3.1.1 Transmission Line Basics 104 3.1.2 Transmission Line Types 106 3.1.3 Microwave Materials 109 3.1.4 Discontinuity Effects 112 3.1.5 Coupling 112 3.1.6 Distributed and Lumped Elements 113 3.2 Chip-and-Wire Approach 114 3.3 Printed Circuit Board 115 3.4 Packaging 118 3.4.1 Electrical Interface 118 3.4.2 Environmental Protection 120 3.4.3 Shielding 120 3.4.4 Mounting and Heat Sinking 123 References 124 4 Design Process 126 4.1 Specifications 126 4.2 Block Diagram 127 4.3 Schematic 133 4.4 Board Layout 150 4.5 Assembly 151 4.6 Mechanical Design 152 4.7 Control Software 153 4.8 Troubleshooting 155 4.9 Testing 158 4.10 Documentation 162 References 163 5 Improving Performance 166 5.1 Performance Trade-Offs 166 5.2 Fractional-N 168 5.3 Using a DDS 172 5.4 Frequency Offset Schemes 175 5.5 Multiloop Architectures 180 5.6 Frequency Acquisition 181 5.7 Lock Monitoring 186 5.8 Fast-Switching Designs 187 5.9 VCO or YIG? 189 5.10 Reference Generation and Distribution 193 5.11 Filtering Harmonics 194 5.12 Frequency Extension 198 References 201 6 Advanced Functions 204 6.1 Frequency Stability and Synchronization 204 6.2 Frequency Control 208 6.2.1 Blanking 208 6.2.2 Frequency Sweep 209 6.2.3 List Mode 211 6.3 Output Power Control 211 6.3.1 Open-Loop Control 211 6.3.2 Closed-Loop Control 213 6.3.3 Power Equalizer 214 6.3.4 Power Sweep 214 6.3.5 Power Mute 215 6.4 Modulation 215 6.4.1 Pulse Modulation 215 6.4.2 Amplitude Modulation 217 6.4.3 Frequency and Phase Modulation 218 6.4.4 Complex Modulation 221 References 223 About the Author 224 Index 226