علم پزشکی قانونی

ABA Fundamentals: Forensic Science opens the door to the many disciplines that comprise forensic science and provides a broad understanding of its uses and limitations, as well as an in depth understanding of the most commonly employed forensic techniques--the ones you see on TV, read in the paper, and confront in your practice. Contents vii CONTENTS Introduction xvii Chapter 1: Basic Considerations and History 1 The Development of Forensic Science 2 The First Forensic Scientists 4 The Coroner and the Medical Examiner 5 Duties of the Coroner/Medical Examiner 7 The Coroner/Medical Examiner in the Courtroom 8 Crime Lab Origins 10 The CSI Effect 10 Chapter 2: General Organization of Forensic Science 13 Criminalistics and Criminalists 15 Crime Lab Services 15 Biological Forensic Science Services 15 Physical Forensic Science Services 17 Ancillary Forensic Services 18 Chapter 3: Evidence 19 Locard’s Exchange Principle 19 Using Evidence 22 Evidence Classification 22 viii Contents Physical and Biological Evidence 23 Direct and Circumstantial Evidence 23 Identification and Comparison 24 Class Versus Individual Characteristics 24 Reconstructive and Associative Evidence 27 The Crime Scene 27 Primary and Secondary Crime Scenes 28 Locating Unknown Crime Scenes 29 Evidence Handling 31 Evidence Location 31 Evidence Protection 32 Evidence Gathering 34 Chain of Custody 37 Crime Scene Reconstruction 38 Staged Crime Scenes 39 Search Warrants 40 Searching Without a Warrant 42 Evidence Standards of Acceptance 43 Frye v. United States 43 Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc. 43 Chapter 4: The Autopsy 45 History of the Autopsy 45 Forensic Autopsy Milestones 47 The Pathologist: Clinical Versus Forensic 47 The Forensic Autopsy 48 Who Gets Autopsied? 48 The Autopsy Procedure 50 The Official Autopsy Report 53 Chapter 5: Corpse Identification 55 Why Is Identification Important? 55 Basic Considerations 56 Getting Rid of the Body 57 Identifying the Corpse 58 Burial Artifacts 59 Body Marks, Diseases, and Scars 59 Fingerprints 61 Dental Comparisons 62 Blood Type and DNA 63 Cause of Death 64 Contents ix Skeletal Remains 65 Are the Bones Human? 65 Biological Characteristics 66 Time Since Death 72 Cause and Manner of Death 73 Facial Reconstruction 75 Photographic Comparisons and Age Progressions 77 Multiple Corpses 79 Chapter 6: Time of Death 81 The Importance of the Time of Death 82 Determining the Time of Death 83 Body Temperature 84 Rigor Mortis 86 Livor Mortis 88 Degree of Putrefaction 90 Stomach Contents 93 Corneal Cloudiness 94 Vitreous Potassium 94 Insect Activity 95 Scene Markers 96 Putting It All Together 97 Chapter 7: Cause, Mechanism, and Manner of Death 99 The Cause and Mechanism of Death 100 The Five Manners of Death 101 The ME’s Determination 102 The ME’s Report 103 Chapter 8: Traumatic Injuries 105 Guns and Bullets 105 Entry Wounds 107 Exit Wounds 110 Shotgun Wound Patterns 111 Sharp-Force Injuries 111 Stab Wounds 112 Incised Wounds 114 Chop Wounds 115 Blunt-Force Trauma 116 Abrasions 117 Contusions 118 x Contents Lacerations 121 Fractures 121 Trauma to Internal Organs 123 Head Injuries 124 Coup and Contrecoup Brain Injuries 128 Electrical Injuries 129 Low-Voltage Shocks 130 High-Voltage Shocks 130 Lightning 131 Bite Wounds 132 Rape Investigation 135 Fatal Assaults 136 Chapter 9: Asphyxia 139 Suffocation 140 Strangulation 144 Toxic Chemicals 151 Drowning 155 Chapter 10: Blood and Other Bodily Fluids 159 The Characteristics of Blood 160 The ABO System 160 Blood and the Serologist 165 Is It Blood? 166 Is It Human Blood? 168 Whose Blood Is It? 169 Paternity Testing 171 Other Bodily Fluids 173 Time Since Intercourse 176 Chapter 11: DNA 179 The Structure of DNA 179 DNA and Forensic Science 183 DNA Matching: A Numbers Game 186 Degraded DNA 188 Locating DNA 189 Testing Paternity 194 Familial DNA 196 Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal DNA 197 The CODIS System 200 Plant and Animal DNA 202 Contents xi Chapter 12: Toxicology 205 What Is a Poison? 205 Historical Perspective 206 The Modern Toxicologist 208 Biotransformation 209 Visible Signs of Poisoning 210 Sample Collection 211 Toxicology and the Cause and Manner of Death 213 Toxicological Testing Procedures 216 The Two-Tiered System 216 Heavy Metal Testing 220 Interpreting the Results 221 Acute Versus Chronic Poisoning 223 Common Drugs, Poisons, and Toxins 224 CNS Depressants (Downers) 225 Alcohols 225 Opiates 229 Barbiturates 230 CNS Stimulants (Uppers) 231 Amphetamines 231 Cocaine 232 Hallucinogenic Drugs 232 Cannabinoids 233 Cacti and Mushrooms 234 LSD and Other Hallucinogenic Chemicals 234 Date Rape Drugs 235 Sniffing and Huffing 238 Corrosive Chemicals 238 Miscellaneous Toxins 238 Chapter 13: Fingerprints 243 The History of Fingerprints 244 Anthropometry and Bertillonage 246 Ridge Patterns 248 Fingerprint Classification Systems 252 The Henry System 252 Locating and Collecting Fingerprints 254 Bloody Prints 257 Digitally Enhancing Prints 258 Fingerprints and DNA 258 Altered Fingerprints 258 Glove Prints 259 xii Contents Chapter 14: Bloodstains 261 Characteristics of Blood 263 Blood Spatter Patterns 264 Passive Bloodstain Patterns 264 Projected Blood Spatters 268 Spatter Classification 271 Spatter Mechanisms: Impact, Projection, and Combination 271 Spatter Velocity: Low, Medium, and High 272 Transfer Patterns 275 Blood Spatters and Crime Scene Reconstruction 276 Chapter 15: Impressions: Shoes, Tires, and Tools 279 Shoe Impression Evidence 280 Class and Individual Shoe Print Evidence 282 Gathering and Analyzing Shoe Impression Evidence 284 Tire Impression Evidence 286 Gathering and Analyzing Tire Impression Evidence 288 Tool Mark Evidence 289 Fabric Impressions 292 Chapter 16: Trace Evidence 293 Types of Trace Evidence 294 Hair 294 Structure of Hair 295 Hair Analysis 297 Fibers 300 Fiber Identification and Comparison 301 Glass 303 Physical Properties 304 Optical Properties 304 Chemical Properties 305 Glass Fracture Patterns 306 Paint 308 Soils and Plants 311 Chapter 17: Firearms Examination 313 Weapon and Ammunition Components 314 Contents xiii Bullet and Shell Casing Examination 315 The Sacco and Vanzetti Case 317 Weapon Type 317 Bullet Examination 319 Shell Casing Examination 321 Gunshot Residues 323 Restoring Serial Numbers 324 National Ballistic Database Systems 325 Chapter 18: Arson Investigation 327 Fires and Explosions 327 Motives for Arson 329 Arson Investigation 330 Point of Origin 330 Cause of the Fire 332 Accelerants 333 Homicidal Fires 335 Explosions 337 Chapter 19: Questioned Documents 339 Handwriting 340 The Examination Process 343 Forgery 344 Altered Documents 346 Indented Writing 348 Paper and Ink 349 Typewriters and Photocopiers 353 Art Forgery 355 Chapter 20: Criminal Psychology 357 The Forensic Psychiatric Professional 358 Psychiatric Testing 360 Competence and Sanity 361 Lies and Deceptions 363 Serial and Multiple Offenders 365 Multiple Murderer Classification 366 The Psychopathology of Serial Offenders 368 Serial Offender Profiling 370 Trophies and Souvenirs 375 MO Versus Signature 376 xiv Contents Victimology 377 Geographic Profiling 378 Linking Criminals and Crime Scenes 379 A Few Final Words 381 Appendix: Forensic Science Timeline 383 Index 389 About the Author 419 Basic Considerations And History -- General Organization Of Forensic Science -- Evidence -- The Autopsy -- Corpse Identification -- Time Of Death -- Cause, Mechanism, And Manner Of Death -- Traumatic Injuries -- Asphyxia -- Blood And Other Bodily Fluids -- Dna -- Toxicology -- Fingerprints -- Bloodstains -- Impressions: Shoes, Tires, And Tools -- Trace Evidence -- Firearms Examination -- Arson Investigation -- Questioned Documents -- Criminal Psychology. By D. P. Lyle.