Forensic Science

This book is the perfect starting point for any newcomer to the field of forensic science. It examines the entire process of conducting forensic science, from the collection of evidence at the crime scene, through the examination and evaluation of that evidence, to the presentation of scientific findings in court. The book is scientifically rigorous but written in a friendly and engaging style making it the ideal companion for undergraduate students beginning a forensic science course; as background for MSc students; as a reference for related professions such as lawyers or police officers; or simply for the casual reader who wants to learn more about this fascinating area. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Acknowledgements 1 Introduction to forensic science 1.1 The role of forensic science in the investigation of crime 1.1.1 The recovery and continuity of evidence 1.1.2 Laboratory work on physical evidence recovered from the crime scene 1.1.3 The interpretation and evaluation of scientific evidence and the presentation of scientific test results in court 1.2 The scientific examination of forensic evidence 1.2.1 The comparison of evidence 1.2.2 Establishing what occurred during a crime: crime reconstruction and simulation experiments 1.2.3 Intelligence information 1.3 The provision of forensic science services in the UK 1.3.1 Scientific support within the police 1.3.2 Large-scale forensic science providers 1.3.3 Small-scale forensic practitioners 1.4 The accreditation of forensic science in the UK 1.4.1 Accreditation of providers 1.4.2 Accreditation of individual practitioners 1.4.3 Course accreditation, endorsement and benchmarking 1.5 Quality assurance in forensic science 2 The crime scene Chapter objectives Introduction 2.1 An overview of crime scene processing 2.2 The first police officer attending and the preservation of the crime scene 2.3 Recording the crime scene 2.3.1 Note-taking at scenes of serious crime 2.3.2 The sketching and virtual reconstruction of scenes of serious crimes 2.3.3 Recording photographic still and video images of scenes of serious crimes 2.3.4 Recording the crime scene using three-dimensional (3-D) imaging systems – an emerging technology 2.4 The recovery of physical evidence 2.5 The recovery of digital evidence Guest section by Daniel Brearley 2.5.1 An introduction to digital devices and their potential relevance 2.5.2 Overview of a digital forensics investigation 2.5.3 The crime scene in relation to digital evidence 2.5.4 Transportation 2.5.5 Basic triage 2.6 Summary Problems Further reading 3 Trace and contact evidence, Part I: Recoverable materials Chapter objectives Introduction 3.1 Hairs and other fibres 3.1.1 The recovery of fibre evidence 3.1.2 An overview of the examination and characterisation of hairs and other fibres 3.2 Glass 3.2.1 Information from patterns of glass fragmentation 3.2.2 Information from glass fragments 3.3 Soils 3.4 Plant material 3.5 Paint 3.6 Others 3.7 A Bayesian approach to the interpretation and evaluation of recoverable trace evidence 3.8 Summary Problems Further reading 4 Trace and contact evidence, Part II: Fingerprints and other marks and impressions Chapter objectives Introduction 4.1 Fingerprints and fingermarks 4.1.1 The basis of fingerprints as a means of identification 4.1.2 The classification of fingerprints 4.1.3 The comparison and identification of fingerprints 4.1.4 The different types of fingermarks 4.1.5 The development of latent fingermarks 4.2 Footwear impressions 4.2.1 Types of footwear impression, and their detection and recovery 4.2.2 The creation of test impressions and their comparison with scene marks 4.3 Bite marks 4.4 Tool marks 4.5 Tyre marks 4.6 Textile products 4.6.1 Damage to textile fabrics 4.7 Summary Problems Further reading 5 The examination of body fluids, including bloodstain pattern analysis Chapter objectives Introduction 5.1 Blood 5.1.1 The composition and function of blood 5.1.2 Presumptive tests for blood 5.1.3 Serological tests for blood 5.2 Bloodstain pattern analysis 5.2.1 Active bloodstains 5.2.2 Passive bloodstains 5.2.3 Transfer bloodstains 5.3 Saliva 5.3.1 The composition and function of saliva 5.3.2 Presumptive test for saliva 5.4 Semen 5.4.1 The composition and function of semen 5.4.2 Tests for semen 5.5 Summary Problems Further reading 6 The analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA profiling Guest chapter by Harry Mountain Chapter objectives Introduction 6.1 The forensic value of DNA profiling 6.1.1 DNA profiles 6.2 DNA, genes and their relationship to individuality 6.2.1 Individuality and genes 6.2.2 Genes and DNA 6.2.3 The hierarchy of DNA organisation 6.2.4 Genetic differences: mutations and alleles 6.2.5 DNA sequence variation among individuals 6.2.6 Inheritance of alleles 6.3 Forensic DNA analysis and DNA profiling 6.3.1 Collection and storage of DNA samples 6.3.2 Extraction of DNA 6.3.3 The polymerase chain reaction 6.3.4 Measuring the length of DNA molecules: gel electrophoresis 6.3.5 Modern DNA profiling: SGM Plus® and DNA17 systems 6.3.6 The National DNA Database® 6.4 Interpretation of DNA profiles 6.4.1 Single-locus data: simple population genetics 6.4.2 Interpreting full, multiloci DNA profiles 6.4.3 DNA profiling in paternity testing 6.4.4 Familial testing 6.4.5 Quality control and complications in DNA profile data 6.4.6 Y chromosome analysis 6.4.7 Summary 6.5 Analysis not involving STRs: single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis 6.5.1 Analysis of SNPs 6.5.2 Mitochondrial DNA analysis 6.5.3 mtDNA 6.5.4 Applications of mtDNA analysis 6.6 Current and future developments 6.6.1 DNA17 216 6.6.2 Low Copy Number or Low Template DNA and sensitivity 6.6.3 Technical developments 6.6.4 Wider application of DNA profiling 6.6.5 Increasing the number of STR loci analysed 6.6.6 Interpreting DNA: predicting phenotypic features 6.6.7 DNA databases 6.6.8 Next-generation sequencing 6.7 Summary Problems Further reading 7 Forensic toxicology and drugs of abuse Chapter objectives Introduction 7.1 Common poisons 7.1.1 Anions 7.1.2 Corrosive poisons 7.1.3 Gaseous and volatile poisons 7.1.4 Metal and metalloid poisons 7.1.5 Pesticides 7.1.6 Toxins 7.2 Drugs of abuse 7.2.1 The legal classification of drugs of abuse within the UK system 7.2.2 Commonly abused drugs 7.3 Factors affecting toxicity 7.4 Routes of uptake and elimination of drugs and other toxic substances 7.5 The analysis of drugs and other poisons 7.5.1 The information sought by analysis 7.5.2 The types of sample that are analysed 7.5.3 Methods of analysis 7.6 Summary Problems Further reading 8 Questioned documents Chapter objectives Introduction 8.1 Handwriting investigation 8.1.1 The development of handwriting 8.1.2 The comparison of handwriting 8.2 Signature investigation 8.2.1 Methods of signature forgery 8.2.2 The detection of forged signatures 8.3 Typed, word-processed and photocopied documents 8.3.1 Typed documents 8.3.2 Word-processed documents 8.3.3 Photocopied documents 8.4 Printed documents 8.5 The analysis of handwriting inks 8.5.1 Comparison of inks 8.5.2 Dating of inks 8.6 Paper analysis 8.6.1 Comparison of paper 8.6.2 Dating of paper 8.7 Tears, folds, holes, obliterations, erasures and indentations 8.7.1 Tears 8.7.2 Folds 8.7.3 Holes 8.7.4 Obliterations 8.7.5 Erasures 8.7.6 Indentations 8.8 Summary Problems Further reading 9 Firearms Chapter objectives Introduction 9.1 Types of firearm and ammunition 9.2 Internal, external and terminal ballistics 9.3 The examination of suspect firearms 9.3.1 With whom or what has this firearm been in contact? 9.3.2 Could this firearm be responsible for firing the shots that were discharged at a given shooting incident? 9.3.3 Could this firearm have been unintentionally discharged? 9.3.4 Could the intentional discharge of this firearm have caused unintentional injury? 9.3.5 Could this firearm have been used in the commission of an act of suicide? 9.4 The examination of spent cartridge cases, bullets and wads 9.4.1 The examination of spent cartridge cases 9.4.2 The examination of fired bullets 9.4.3 The examination of shotgun plastic cup wads 9.5 Gunshot residues 9.6 Summary Problems Further reading 10 Fires Chapter objectives Introduction 10.1 The nature of fire 10.2 The behaviour of fire 10.2.1 Fires in rooms and similar compartments 10.2.2 Outdoor fires 10.3 Fire scene investigation 10.3.1 Witnesses and background information 10.3.2 Processing the scene 10.3.3 Finding the seat of a fire 10.3.4 Establishing the cause of a fire 10.4 The analysis of fire accelerants 10.5 Summary Problems Further reading 11 Explosions and explosives Chapter objectives Introduction 11.1 The classification of explosions and explosives 11.2 Explosion scene investigation 11.3 The analysis of explosives 11.4 Summary Problems Further reading 12 The recovery and forensic examination of human remains Chapter objectives Introduction 12.1 The role of the forensic archaeologist in the location, excavation and recovery of human remains 12.1.1 The search for human remains 12.1.2 Excavation of graves and the recovery of human remains 12.2 Early post-mortem changes and the estimation of time of death 12.2.1 Changes in body temperature 12.2.2 Hypostasis 12.2.3 Rigor mortis 12.2.4 Changes in the eyes 12.3 Post-mortem decomposition and related phenomena 12.3.1 The process of post-mortem decomposition 12.3.2 Skeletalisation 12.3.3 Mummification and the formation of adipocere 12.4 The establishment of cause of death 12.4.1 The circumstances under which deaths are reported by medical practitioners to the coroner 12.4.2 The role of the coroner in the investigation of reported deaths 12.4.3 Post-mortem examination 12.5 The identification of human remains 12.5.1 The identification of non-skeletalised bodies 12.5.2 The identification of skeletalised remains 12.6 Summary Problems Further reading 13 Statistics and the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence Chapter objectives Introduction 13.1 Data 13.1.1 Types of data 13.1.2 Normally distributed data 13.1.3 Confidence limits and confidence intervals 13.2 Precision, accuracy and error 13.3 Regression analysis 13.4 Hypothesis testing using t-tests 13.5 Parametric and non-parametric tests 13.6 Likelihood ratios and the Bayesian approach 13.6.1 The choice of hypotheses and the hierarchy of propositions 13.6.2 The Case Assessment and Interpretation model 13.6.3 The prosecutor’s fallacy and the defence attorney’s fallacy 13.6.4 The use of the Bayesian approach in jury trials 13.7 Evidential (i.e. judicial) versus intelligence (i.e. investigative) use of forensic science 13.8 Summary Problems Further reading 14 Forensic science in court Chapter objectives Introduction 14.1 The criminal court system in England and Wales 14.1.1 The Magistrates’ Court 14.1.2 The Crown Court 14.1.3 The courts of appeal 14.2 Streamlined Forensic Reporting (SFR) and scientists’ statements made for court 14.3 The role of the forensic scientist as expert witness 14.4 The interpretation and evaluation of evidence 14.5 Summary Problems Further reading Appendix 1 Sign of elongation and typical birefringence values for man-made fibres Appendix 2 Values of t Glossary Index Build a strong foundation on the principles and procedures of modern forensic science. Forensic Science, 4th edition, Global Edition, by Andrew Jackson, Julie Jackson, Harry Mountain, and Daniel Brearley, is a perfect introductory guide for newcomers to the field. Its learner-friendly text guides you through the entire process of conducting forensic science. The book carefully examines each part of the process, teaching you the proper procedure for gathering evidence from a crime scene, how to examine and evaluate that evidence, and the presentation of scientific findings in court. Scientifically rigorous, the text remains engaging, written in a friendly style to ensure you can grasp the points at hand. This new edition incorporates revised text and information reflecting the latest knowledge in the field, as well as additional worked examples and review boxes. Approachable and comprehensive, this book serves as an ideal companion for undergraduate students beginning a forensic science course, as background for MSc students, as a reference for related professions, or for those with a casual interest in forensics. This title also comes with a Companion Website.