Food Safety and Quality-Based Shelf Life of Perishable Foods (Food Microbiology and Food Safety)

This book addresses the shelf life of foods, a key factor in determining how food is distributed and consequently where and when different food products are available for consumption. Shelf life is determined by several factors, including microbiological, chemical, physical, and organoleptic deterioration. Often these factors are interrelated and interdependent. The editors of this volume focus specifically on the microbial factors related to shelf life of perishable foods and food commodities. This allows for more detailed coverage of foodborne bacterial pathogens and spoilage microorganisms of concern. The initial part of the book covers the why and how of shelf life determination as well as the specific microbial pathogens and spoilage microorganisms of concern for perishable foods. Contributors address topics such as the techniques utilized for determination of shelf life, the frequency of shelf life testing for different products, the interpretation of data to make shelf life determinations, and management of shelf life of food products from the perspective of the food producer, distributor, retailer, and regulator. Three key areas impacting shelf life are addressed in detail: sanitation, processing, and packaging. The sanitation chapter explains the necessary components of cleaning and sanitizing to assure a hygienic processing environment and why that is critical to shelf life control. Traditional processing procedures are reviewed and advanced processing technologies are explored. Materials used in food packaging and the utilization of traditional and activated food packaging by product type are covered in detail. The latter two chapters of the book delve into newer techniques of analysis and explore the microbiome of food products. Implications of microbial ecology and microbial quantification in food products are discussed in chapters on genomics and in the changing dogma of meat shelf life. The primary audience for this work includes food industry quality and food safety technicians, managers, directors, and executives responsible for shelf life. Academicians and governmental researchers involved in research and teaching about food safety and quality will also find the material relevant and useful. Preface 6 Acknowledgments 8 Contents 9 Contributors 10 Chapter 1: Purposes and Principles of Shelf Life Determination 11 1.1 Purposes 11 1.1.1 Stakeholders 12 1.1.1.1 Business Development 13 1.1.1.2 Logistics 13 1.1.1.3 Science 16 1.1.1.4 Regulatory 17 1.1.1.5 Consumers 18 1.1.2 Assuring Quality and Wholesomeness of Food through Code Dates 19 1.1.2.1 Use by, Sell by, Best by, Best Before, Best If Used by, and Enjoy by 19 1.1.2.2 Food Waste 20 1.1.3 Expiration = Decision Time 21 1.1.3.1 Distressed Product 21 1.1.3.2 Donation 22 1.1.3.3 Diversion 22 1.1.3.4 Destruction 23 1.1.3.5 Scandal 23 1.2 Principles of Shelf Life Determination 24 1.2.1 Quality Deterioration Rates 24 1.2.2 Defining Quality Factors 27 1.2.2.1 Microbiological Profiles 28 1.2.2.2 Consumer Acceptance 29 1.2.3 Shelf Life Testing 30 1.2.4 Summary 33 References 33 Chapter 2: Food Safety Factors Determining Shelf Life 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Food Safety Concerns for Extended Shelf Life Foods 38 2.2.1 Yersinia enterocolitica 39 2.2.2 Bacillus cereus 40 2.2.3 Non-Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum 42 2.2.4 Listeria monocytogenes 44 2.3 Challenge Studies and Shelf Life 45 2.4 Summary 46 References 47 Chapter 3: Microbial Growth and Spoilage 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Role of Temperature in Shelf Life 52 3.3 Storage Temperatures and Microbial Growth 53 3.3.1 Freezing Temperatures 53 3.3.2 Refrigeration Temperatures 62 3.4 Shelf-Life Determination 63 3.5 Accelerated Shelf-Life Testing for Refrigerated Foods 64 3.6 Chemical Indicators of Microbial Growth 65 3.7 Shelf Life of Specific Food Types 67 3.7.1 Fresh Produce 67 3.7.2 Pasteurized Milk and Dairy Products 68 3.7.3 Plant-Based Protein Products 69 3.7.4 Fresh Seafood 70 3.7.5 Raw Meat and Poultry 71 3.7.6 Further Processed Meat, Poultry, and Fish 72 3.8 Conclusion 74 References 74 Chapter 4: Impact of Sanitation on Product Shelf Life 80 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Sanitation Program 81 4.2.1 Daily Sanitation: Seven-Step Process 82 4.2.2 Non-Daily Sanitation: Deep Cleaning and Intervention 90 4.2.3 Operational Sanitation 92 4.3 Sanitary Design and Access 92 4.4 Verification and Performance Swabbing 93 4.5 Maturity Model 95 4.6 Summary 97 References 98 Chapter 5: Advanced Processing Techniques for Extending the Shelf Life of Foods 99 5.1 Introduction: What Is Food Spoilage and How Is it Prevented? 99 5.2 Processing Techniques for Extending Shelf Life 100 5.2.1 Basic Preservation Techniques 100 5.2.1.1 Cold Storage/Cooling/Freezing 100 5.2.2 Thermal/Heating 101 5.3 Advanced Processing Technologies 102 5.3.1 High Hydrostatic Pressure 102 5.3.2 Ultraviolet and Pulsed Light 103 5.3.3 Ultrasonication 104 5.3.4 Irradiation 105 5.3.5 Cold Plasma 105 5.3.6 Pulsed Electric Fields 106 5.3.7 Ozone 107 5.4 Conclusions 108 References 108 Chapter 6: Packaging of Perishable Food Products 112 6.1 Introduction 112 6.2 Packaging Functions 113 6.2.1 Containment 113 6.2.2 Protection 113 6.2.3 Convenience 114 6.2.4 Communication 115 6.3 Materials Used in Food Packaging 115 6.3.1 Metal 116 6.3.2 Glass 116 6.3.3 Plastics 117 6.4 Specific Plastic Polymers Used in Food Packaging 117 6.4.1 Polyethylene 117 6.4.2 Polypropylene 119 6.4.3 Polystyrene 120 6.4.4 Polyvinyl Chloride 120 6.4.5 Polyvinylidene Chloride 121 6.4.6 Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol and Polyvinyl Alcohol 121 6.4.7 Polyethylene Terephthalate 122 6.4.8 Polyamides 122 6.4.9 Polycarbonates 122 6.4.10 Ionomers 123 6.5 Packaging of Specific Perishable Food Products 123 6.5.1 Overview 123 6.5.2 Vacuum Packaging 123 6.5.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 123 6.5.4 Packaging of Fresh Red Meat 124 6.5.5 Packaging of Poultry Products 126 6.5.6 Packaging of Seafood Products 126 6.5.7 Packaging of Fresh Produce 127 6.5.8 Packaging of Dairy and Cheese Products 129 6.6 Active Packaging Technologies 130 6.6.1 Overview 130 6.6.2 Oxygen Scavenging Technologies 131 6.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Scavenging Technologies 132 6.6.4 Odor Scavenging Packaging 133 6.6.5 Moisture Control Technologies 135 6.6.6 Antimicrobial Packaging Technologies 135 6.7 Intelligent Packaging 137 6.8 Concluding Thoughts 138 References 139 Chapter 7: Beyond the Standard Plate Count: Genomic Views into Microbial Food Ecology 142 7.1 Introduction 142 7.2 Recombinant DNA Technology 143 7.3 Whole Genome Sequencing 144 7.4 Metagenomics 145 7.5 CRISPR-Cas 146 7.6 Foodomics 146 7.7 Current Challenges and Research Needs 147 References 148 Chapter 8: The Changing Shelf Life of Chilled, Vacuum-Packed Red Meat 151 8.1 Introduction 151 8.2 Sensory and Microbiological Quality of Chilled Red Meats 153 8.3 Then and Now: Sensory Aspects of Shelf Life 154 8.4 Then and Now: Factors That Affect Shelf Life 156 8.4.1 Low Total Counts at Packing 156 8.4.2 Low-Permeability Packaging Films 157 8.4.3 Temperature Throughout the Supply Chain 158 8.5 Then and Now: Microbial Communities on VP Beef Primals 158 8.6 Shelf Life of Vacuum-Packed Lamb 160 8.7 Conclusions 160 References 161 Index 163