Following the cap-figure in Majapahit temple reliefs : a new look at the religious function of East Javanese temples, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries

Following male figures wearing a cap (cap-figures) in temple reliefs of the Javanese Majapahit period (ca. 1300-1500) leads to astonishing results on their meaning and function. The cap-figures, representing commoners, servants, warriors, noblemen, and most significantly Prince Panji, the hero from the East Javanese Panji stories, are unique to depictions of non-Indic narratives. The cap-figure constitutes a prominent example of Majapahit’s creativity in new concepts of art, literature and religion, independent from the Indian influence. More than that, the symbolic meaning of the cap-figures leads to an esoteric level: a pilgrim who followed the depictions of the cap-figures and of Panji in the temples would have been guided to the Tantric doctrine within Hindu-Buddhist religion Cover 1 Following The Cap-Figure In Majapahit Temple Reliefs 4 Copyright 5 Contents 6 Acknowledgements 10 Technical notes 12 List of figures, tables, and plates 14 I. Introduction 20 Introducing the subject 21 previous research 24 methodology 30 outline 34 II. Narrative reliefs and panji stories 38 narrative reliefs and literary traditions 38 panji stories 44 the literary genre 44 previous research 50 symbolism of the panji stories 57 narratives, panji stories, and performing arts 66 III. Iconography of the late east javanese temple reliefs 70 iconographical conventions in the late east javanese temple reliefs 70 types of characters 71 types of postures 75 types of place 77 the cap-figures 79 the term ‘cap’ 79 iconography and classification 81 the kadeyan: gambyok relief and grogol statues 85 the gambyok relief 87 the grogol statues 90 further kertolo statues 92 IV. Temples in context of religion and politics 94 architecture of the majapahit period 94 the religious belief systems: saiwism and buddhism 97 tantrism 101 religious practices in majapahit temples 112 the politics of majapahit 115 temples in the ‘unity of the realm’ 122 the decline of majapahit – mountain sanctuaries 126 water and mountain in ancient javanese mythology and art 132 V. Table of depictions of cap-figures in majapahit art in chronological order 142 selection of case studies 156 VI. Candi jago: the cap, a new fashion of headgear 162 layout and architecture 163 history and function 163 reliefs with cap-figures 164 tantri stories 164 angling dharma story 166 kunjarakarna story 169 sudhanakumara-awadana story 171 conclusion 173 VII. Candi panataran: panji, introducing the pilgrim into the tantric doctrine 180 layout and architecture 180 history and function 185 iconography and interpretation of the reliefs with cap-figures 190 the outer bathing place 190 the pendopo terrace (C) 192 analysis of the symbolic meaning of the reliefs on the pendopo terrace 220 the naga temple (E) 229 the small pendopo terrace (F) 233 the dwarapala in front of the main temple 237 the main temple (G)/(H) 240 the inner bathing place (I) 248 conclusion 251 VIII. Candi surowono: sidapaksa, a nobleman with a cap 260 layout and architecture 260 history and function 261 iconography and interpretation of the narrative reliefs 263 the sri tanjung reliefs 263 the arjunawiwaha reliefs and the bubukshah reliefs 267 cross-references between the three narrative relief series 270 conclusion 281 addendum: further cap-figures 286 IX. Candi mirigambar: panji, the ideal lover and warrior 290 layout and architecture 290 history and function 291 iconography and interpretation of the narrative reliefs 292 conclusion 308 X. Sanctuaries on mount penanggungan: candi kendalisodo, candi yudha, and the panji statue from candi selokelir – the climax 312 geographical situation and layout of the sanctuaries 312 history and function of the sites 315 candi kendalisodo 320 candi yudha 329 the panji statue from candi selokelir 335 conclusion 342 xi. conclusion: Panji and the cap-figure as intermediary characters on the path to tantric rituals 346 Appendix: Previous research on the single case studies 358 Glossary: Javanese and old javanese terms 364 Bibliography 368 Index 406 Indonesia,Java,History,East Javanese Temples New Look at the Religious Function of East Javanese Temples, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries Acknowledgements. ix Technical Notes. xi List of Figures, Tables, and Plates. xiii 1. Introduction. 1 2. Narrative Reliefs and Panji Stories. 19 3. Iconography of the Late East Javanese Temple Reliefs. 51 4. Temples in Context of Religion and Politics. 75 5. Table of Depictions or Cap-Figures in Majapahit Art in Chronological Order. 123 6. Candi Jago: the Cap, a New Fashion of Headgear. 143 7. Candi Panataran: Panji, Introducing The Pilgrim into the Tantric Doctrine. 161 8. Candi Surowono: Sidapaksa, a Nobleman with a Cap. 241 9. Candi Mirigambar: Panji, the Ideal Lover and Warrior. 271 10. Sanctuaries on Mount Penanggungan: Candi Kendalisodo, Candi Yudha, and the Panji Statue from Candi Selokelir - the Climax. 293 11. Conclusion: Panji and the Cap-Figure as Intermediary Characters on the Path to Tantric Rituals. 327 Appendix: Previous Research on the Single Case Studies. 339 Glossary: Javanese and Old Javanese Terms. 345 Bibliography. 349 Index. 387 This Title Is Available Online In Its Entirety In Open Access. This Publication Provides A New Understanding Of The Religious Function Of The East Javanese Temples. The Study Of The Cap-figures And Their Symbolism Yields An Outstanding Contribution To The Uniqueness Of Majapahit Culture.