طراحی رادار FMCW

Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars are a fast expanding area in radar technology due to their stealth features, extremely high resolutions, and relatively clutter free displays. This groundbreaking resource offers engineers expert guidance in designing narrowband FMCW radars for surveillance, navigation, and missile seeking. It also provides professionals with a thorough understanding of underpinnings of this burgeoning technology. Moreover, readers find detailed coverage of the RF components that form the basis of radar construction. Featuring clear examples, the book presents critical discussions on key applications. Practitioners learn how to use time-saving MATLAB® and SystemVue design software to help them with their challenging projects in the field. Additionally, this authoritative reference shows engineers how to analyze FMCW radars of various types, including missile seekers and missile altimeters. Packed with over 600 equations, the book presents discussions on key radar algorithms and their implementation, as well as designing modern radar to meet given operational requirements. FMCW Radar Design Contents Preface Acknowledgments Part 1 Fundamentals of Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) Radar Design Chapter 1 The Advent of FMCW Radars 1.1 The Need for Stealth 1.2 The Basic Requirements for LPI Capability 1.3 Pseudo-LPI Radars 1.4 CW Transmissions 1.5 Radar Detection Range and Interception Range 1.6 Radar Intercept Range 1.7 Commercial LPI Radars: “Squire” Battlefield Surveillance LPI Radar 1.8 Miscellaneous Uses of LPI Radars 1.8.1 Altimeters 1.8.2 Landing Systems 1.8.3 Train Radars 1.9 A Survey of This Book References Chapter 2 FMCW Waveform 2.1 Introduction 2.2 FMCW 2.3 LFM Waveforms 2.4 Linear Sawtooth FMCW 2.4.1 LFM Waveform 2.5 Linear Triangular FMCW 2.5.1 One Target 2.5.2 Two Targets 2.6 Segmented Linear FMCW 2.7 Derivation of the Swept Bandwidth 2.8 Calculating the Range 2.9 Matched Filter 2.10 Storing a Replica 2.11 Time-Bandwidth Product 2.12 Waveform Compression 2.12.1 LFM Waveform Compression 2.12.2 Correlation Processor 2.12.3 Stretch Processor 2.13 Sidelobes and Weighting for Linear FM Systems 2.14 Basic Equations of FMCW Radars 2.14.1 FMCW Equation 2.15 FMCW Radar Range Equation Revisited 2.16 Effect of Sweep Time on Range Resolution 2.17 Concept of Instrumented Range 2.18 Nonlinearity in FM Waveforms 2.19 Coherent Processing Interval 2.20 Summary References Chapter 3 The Radar Ambiguity Function 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Examples of Ambiguity Functions 3.2.1 Single-Frequency Pulse 3.2.2 Linear FM Pulse 3.3 Range-Doppler Coupling 3.4 Phase-Coded Signals References Chapter 4 Noise in Radar Receivers 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Noise Characterization 4.2.1 Fundamentals 4.2.2 Noise Bandwidth 4.3 Sources of Noise 4.3.1 Thermal Noise 4.3.2 Resistor Noise Characteristics 4.3.3 Shot Noise 4.3.4 Flicker Noise 4.3.5 White Noise 4.3.6 Phase Noise 4.3.7 Avalanche Noise 4.3.8 Burst Noise 4.4 Noise Figure 4.5 Effective Noise Temperature 4.6 The Noise Figure of Multistage Systems 4.7 Noise Figure of Other Devices 4.8 Noise Reduction Strategies 4.9 Noise Figure Measurement 4.9.1 Gain Method 4.9.2 Y-Factor Method 4.9.3 Noise Figure Meter 4.10 Summary References Chapter 5 Radar Detection 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Detection Problem 5.2.1 Neyman-Pearson Theorem 5.3 Noise Probability Density Functions 5.4 Probability of False Alarm 5.5 Probability of Detection 5.6 The Matched Filter 5.7 Matched Filter in Colored Noise 5.8 The Correlation Receiver 5.9 Fluctuating Targets 5.10 Integration of Pulses 5.10.1 Coherent Integration 5.10.2 Noncoherent Integration 5.10.3 Cumulative Detection Probability 5.11 CFAR Processing 5.12 Cell-Averaging CFAR 5.13 Design of FMCW Marine Navigation Radar 5.14 Summary References Part 2 Radar RF Hardware and Architecture Chapter 6 Radar System Components 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Amplifiers 6.3 Types of Amplifiers 6.4 Amplifier Characteristics 6.4.1 1-dB Compression Point 6.4.2 Intermodulation Products 6.4.3 Dynamic Range and SFDR 6.4.4 Gain Compression and Desensitization 6.4.5 Single-Tone Modulation 6.4.6 Two-Tone Intermodulation 6.4.7 Cross-modulation 6.4.8 Nonlinearities in Power Amplifiers (PAs) 6.5 Mixers 6.5.1 Down-Conversion 6.5.2 Up-Conversion 6.5.3 Mixer Specifications 6.5.4 Mixer Intermodulation Products 6.5.5 Mixer Properties 6.5.6 Mixer Hardware Issues 6.5.7 Mixer Types 6.6 Synthesizer PLL Phase Noise 6.7 What Is Phase Noise? 6.8 Passive Components 6.9 Summary References Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Radar Transmitter/Receiver Architectures 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Receiver Architectures 7.2.1 Single-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver 7.2.2 Dual-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver 7.2.3 Direct Conversion Receiver (Zero-IF) 7.2.4 Hartley Architecture—Image-Reject Receiver 7.2.5 Weaver Architecture 7.2.6 Digital IF Receiver 7.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 7.3.1 Nyquist Sampling 7.3.2 Bandpass Sampling 7.3.3 Effects of Sampling Rate 7.3.4 Bandpass Sampling Theorem 7.3.5 Undersampling Techniques for Integer Bands 7.3.6 Locations for Bandpass Sampling 7.3.7 SNR of ADC for Bandpass Sampling 7.4 Low-IF Receivers 7.5 Receiver Signal Analysis 7.6 Transmitter Architectures 7.6.1 Direct Conversion Transmitter: Homodyne 7.6.2 Transmitter Architecture: Heterodyne 7.7 Summary References Part 3 FMCW Radar Signal Processing Chapter 8 Doppler Processing 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Doppler Frequency Shift 8.3 Pulse-Frequency Spectrum 8.4 Doppler Ambiguities 8.4.1 Doppler Effect 8.5 Radar Clutter 8.6 PRF Trade-offs 8.7 Pulse Compression 8.8 Doppler Processing 8.9 The Genesis of the MTI 8.9.1 MTI 8.10 MTI Technology 8.10.1 Unambiguous Range 8.10.2 Delay-Line Cancelers 8.10.3 Doppler Ambiguities 8.10.4 MTI Blind Phase 8.10.5 MTI Improvement Factor 8.10.6 MTI Cancelers 8.11 Staggered PRFs 8.12 Limitations of MTI Performance 8.13 Digital MTI 8.14 MTDs 8.14.1 Pulse-Doppler (PD) Radars 8.14.2 Difference Between MTI and PD Radars 8.14.3 MTD Schematic 8.15 Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR 9) 8.16 Summary References Part 4 FMCW Radar Design Tutorials Chapter 9 Design and Development of FMCW Battlefield Surveillance Radar 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Problem Statement 9.3 Specifications Analysis 9.4 Range Resolution 9.5 Sweep Bandwidths 9.6 Frequency of Radar Operation and Choice of Transmitter 9.7 Sweep Repetition Interval 9.8 Cell-Averaging CFAR 9.9 Power Output Control 9.10 IF Bandwidth 9.11 Blanking 9.12 Schematic Details (SystemVue®) 9.13 Performance Evaluation 9.14 Signal Processing 9.15 Range FFT 9.16 Centroiding 9.17 CFAR and Threshold 9.18 Antenna 9.19 In God We Trust, the Rest We Track 9.19.1 The Radar Tracker 9.19.2 General Approach 9.19.3 Plot to Track Association 9.19.4 Track Initiation 9.19.5 Track Maintenance 9.19.6 Track Smoothing 9.19.7 Alpha-Beta Tracker 9.19.8 Kalman Filter 9.19.9 Multiple Hypothesis Tracker (MHT) 9.19.10 Interacting Multiple Model (IMM) 9.19.11 Nonlinear Tracking Algorithms 9.19.12 EKF 9.19.13 UKF 9.19.14 Particle Filter 9.19.15 Commercial Tracking Software References Chapter 10 Design and Development of FMCW Marine Navigation Radar 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Problem Statement 10.3 Product Description 10.3 Specification Analysis 10.4 Range Resolution 10.5 Sweep Bandwidths 10.6 Frequency of Radar Operation and Choice Of Transmitter 10.7 Sweep Repetition Interval 10.8 Selection of IF Filter Bandwidth 10.9 Radar Clutter and Clutter Mapping 10.10 Power Output 10.11 Performance Evaluation 10.12 Signal Processing 10.13 Antenna 10.14 Basic Guidelines in RF System Design Using SystemVue® References Chapter 11 Antiship Missile Seeker 11.1 Introduction 11.2 System Specifications 11.2.1 Main Operational Features 11.2.2 Technical Specifications 11.3 RBS15 Mk3 Guidance System 11.4 Warhead and Propulsion of RBS15 Mk3 SSM 11.5 Missile Altimeter 11.6 Active Radar Seeker 11.7 Seeker Specifications (Speculative) 11.8 Operational Procedure 11.9 System Performance (Speculative) 11.9.1 Target Detection and Identification 11.9.2 Flight Profile 11.9.3 Radar Front End 11.9.4 Antenna and Scanner 11.9.5 Signal Processing 11.9.6 Performance in Sea Clutter 11.9.7 Target Identification 11.10 Basic Principles of Homing Guidance 11.10.1 Handover Analysis 11.10.2 Engagement Kinematics 11.10.3 Development of PN Guidance Law 11.10.4 Simulations 11.10.5 Extraction of LOS Rate 11.10.6 Radome Design Requirements 11.11 Further Studies 11.12 The Results 11.13 Altimeter 11.14 FMICW Radar 11.15 Design of the FMICW Altimeter 11.16 Measurement Strategy 11.17 Radar Controller 11.18 Signal Processing 11.19 Micro Radar Altimeter References Appendix A FMCW Radar Designer GUI Appendix B SNR Calculations in Radars B.1 Introduction B.2 Coherent Integration B.3 Noncoherent Integration B.4 MTI Radar B.5 Comparing to Chirp-Pulse Radars B.6 MTD Radar B.7 BFSR Analysis B.7.1 BFSR as MTI B.7.2 BFSR as MTD B.8 Dynamic Range Reexamined B.9 ADC 9255 B.9 Measured noise floor at ADC input: −65 dBm References Appendix C AAFs C.1 Introduction C.2 Bandwidth Issues About the Author Index