Fish Vaccines : Health Management for Sustainable Aquaculture

The editors cordially acknowledge 'International Veterinary Vaccinology Network' (IVVN) and 'BactiVac -The Bacterial Vaccines Network' for their excellent support for the successful production of the book. The authors are sincerely appreciated and acknowledged for their skillfull presentations of their respective chapters in articulating this book. I would like to thank Dr. Subramaniam Sivakumar, Associate Professor, Sri Sankara Arts and Science College, Enathur, Kancheepuram for offering his handful assistance and for technical support throughout the publishing process. The editors also greatfully acknowledge CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, especially Madhurima Kahali, Neha Bhatt and Vijay Shanker, for their patience and timely support towards the commendable task of organizing and integrating this compendium. ix Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Acknowledgements Foreword by Shri. Pinarayi Vijayan Foreword by Prof Chris Secombes Foreword by Dr. Tim Connelley Editors Contributors Section I: Vaccines in Aquaculture: A Preface Chapter 1 Understanding Vaccine Development in Aquaculture 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Vaccine 1.2.1 Ideal Vaccine 1.2.2 History 1.2.3 Requirement of Vaccine in Aquaculture 1.2.4 Conventional and Modern Methods in Vaccine Development 1.2.4.1 Conventional Methods 1.2.4.2 Modern Methods 1.2.5 Development of Vaccine for Specific Disease 1.2.5.1 Bacterial Fish Vaccines 1.2.5.2 Viral Fish Vaccines 1.2.5.3 Fish Vaccines Against Parasite 1.2.6 Challenges in the Prevention and Control of Fish Diseases 1.2.7 Progress in Fish Vaccine Development 1.2.8 Challenges in Fish Vaccine Development 1.2.9 Opportunities in Fish Vaccine Development 1.2.10 Effects and Benefits of Vaccine in Aquaculture 1.3 Limitations 1.4 Future Prospects 1.5 Conclusion References Chapter 2 Antigens and Immune Responses in Fishes: An Overview 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Immune System in Fishes 2.2.1 Immunity of Agnathans 2.2.2 Immunity of Osteichthyes 2.2.3 Fish Innate Immunity 2.2.3.1 Surface Barrier 2.2.3.2 Humoral Factors 2.2.3.3 Cellular Factors 2.3 Immune Organs of Fish 2.3.1 Lymphoid Organs of Fish 2.3.1.1 Primary Lymphoid Organs 2.3.1.2 Secondary Lymphoid Organs 2.4 Antigens in Fish 2.5 Elements of Immune Responses 2.5.1 Innate Immunity 2.5.2 Nonspecific Cellular Immunity 2.5.2.1 Toll-Like Receptors 2.5.2.2 Macrophages 2.5.2.3 Granulocytes 2.5.3 Nonspecific Cytotoxic Cells 2.5.4 Lysozymes 2.5.5 Alkaline Phosphatase 2.5.6 Complements 2.5.7 Interferons 2.5.8 C-Reactive Protein 2.5.9 Transferrin 2.5.10 Lectins 2.5.11 Adaptive Immunity 2.6 What is Immunity Modulation? 2.6.1 How Does the Fish Immune System Work? 2.6.2 Why is Immune Regulation Important? 2.6.3 Immunomodulatory Effects of Hormones 2.6.3.1 Cortisol 2.6.3.2 Growth Hormone and Prolactin 2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 3 Aquaculture: Facing an Array of Pathogens 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Turning Intensive Shrimp Farming Into Land-Based IMTA 3.3 Bioeconomy of Land-Based IMTA with Shrimp and Fish as the Fed Species 3.4 Canvas-Pond Culture of Marine Shrimp 3.5 Feeding on Different Trophic Levels 3.6 The Health of Extractive Fish Species 3.7 A Possible Vaccination Program for Fish in Land-Based IMTA Systems 3.7.1 Vaccines for Seawater Nile Tilapia 3.7.2 Vaccines for the Asian Sea Bass 3.7.3 Vaccines for Groupers (Epinephelus Spp.) 3.8 Conclusions References Section II: Vaccination in Fishes: Types and Methods Chapter 4 Concepts and Types of Vaccines 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Vaccines 4.2.1 Fish Immune System 4.2.1.1 Fish Immunity 4.2.1.2 Vaccine Efficacy 4.2.1.3 Adverse Effects 4.2.2 History of Vaccines 4.3 Infectious Diseases of Fish 4.3.1 Bacterial Diseases 4.3.2 Viral Diseases 4.3.3 Protozoan Diseases 4.3.4 Types of Vaccines 4.3.4.1 Inactivated Vaccines 4.3.4.2 Live Attenuated Vaccines 4.3.4.3 Subunit Vaccines 4.3.4.4 Virus-Like Particle Vaccines 4.3.4.5 DNA Vaccines 4.3.4.6 RNA Vaccines 4.4 Adjuvants 4.4.1 Adjuvants Usage 4.4.2 Signal 1 Facilitators 4.4.2.1 Freund's Complete Adjuvant 4.4.2.2 Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant 4.4.2.3 Montanide 4.4.2.4 Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide) (PLGA) Particles 4.4.3 Signal 2 Facilitators 4.4.3.1 Alum 4.4.3.2 β-Glucans 4.4.3.3 Cytokines 4.4.3.4 Polyinosinic Polycytidylic Acid (Poly I:C) 4.4.3.5 Synthetic CpG Oligonucleotides 4.4.3.6 Lipopeptides 4.5 New Technologies for Vaccine Development 4.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment Disclosure Statement References Chapter 5 Antigen Discovery 5.1 The Choice of Vaccine Method for Fish Disease Vaccine 5.1.1 The Current Situation of Fish Vaccine Development 5.1.2 A Proposed Workflow for Vaccine Development 5.2 Sequential Approach in Selecting Antigen 5.2.1 Reverse Vaccinology to Identify Antigens Through Sequence Similarity 5.2.1.1 Conventional Reverse Vaccinology 5.2.1.2 The Pan-Genome and Comparative Genome Analysis 5.2.2 Identify Antigens Through Subcellular Localization 5.3 Immunoinformatic Assistance in Antigen Discovery 5.3.1 Prediction of T-Cell and B-Cell Epitopes 5.3.2 Molecular Docking 5.3.2.1 Obtaining Molecular Structures 5.3.2.2 Molecular Docking Tools 5.4 Antigen Validation by Experimental Approaches 5.4.1 A Classic Pipeline of Antigen Discovery Validation 5.4.2 Different Methods for Antigenic Evaluation of Predicted Antigens 5.4.2.1 Antibody Analysis 5.4.2.2 Lymphocytes Analysis 5.4.2.3 Cytokine Profile 5.5 Conclusion Acknowledgement References Chapter 6 Novel Advancements in Vaccine Delivery and Methods of Vaccination: Experimental Strategies 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Novel Advancements in Vaccine Delivery 6.2.1 A Brief Description on Adjuvants 6.2.2 Nanovaccine Delivery 6.2.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 6.2.2.2 Inorganic Nanoparticles 6.2.2.3 Nanoliposomes 6.2.2.4 ISCOMs 6.2.2.5 Virus-like Particles 6.2.2.6 Nano Emulsions 6.2.3 Nanovaccines Activate Innate Immunity 6.2.4 Nanovaccines Activate Adaptive Immunity 6.2.5 Cell-Mediated Immunity Activation 6.2.6 Antibody-Mediated Immunity Activation 6.2.7 Immunological Memory is Boosted by Nanovaccines 6.3 Methods of Vaccination 6.3.1 Oral Method 6.3.2 Immersion: Dip and Bath Methods 6.3.3 Intraperitoneal (IP) Injection 6.4 Advantages and Limitations in Aquaculture 6.4.1 Advantages 6.4.2 Limitations 6.5 Conclusion References Section III: Adjuvants in Vaccination: An Underpinning Chapter 7 Role of Adjuvants in Vaccination Studies 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Origins and Functions of Adjuvants in Vaccine Production 7.2.1 History of the Discovery of Adjuvants 7.2.2 How Does Adjuvant Function in Vaccines? 7.3 Classifications of Different Types of Adjuvants 7.4 Requirements for Using Adjuvants 7.5 Mechanism of Immune Stimulation 7.6 Optimal Conditions in the Adjuvant Formulation 7.7 Characteristics of an Ideal Adjuvant 7.8 Adjuvanted Vaccine for Fish 7.9 Challenges in Fish Vaccine Adjuvant Development 7.10 Conclusion Disclosure Statement References Chapter 8 Development of Mucosal Adjutants for Fish Vaccination 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Roles of Adjuvant in Vaccination 8.3 Classification of Adjuvant 8.4 The Use of Adjuvants in Fish Vaccination 8.5 Fish Adjuvant 8.6 Necessity of the Use of Adjuvant in Vaccination 8.7 Conclusion Disclosure Statement References Section IV: Technological Advancements and Efficacy of Fish Vaccination Chapter 9 Biotechnological Approaches to Vaccines 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Vaccine Generation 9.2.1 First Generation of Vaccine 9.2.2 Second Generation of Vaccine 9.2.3 Third Generation of Vaccine 9.3 Conventional Vaccines and Their Drawbacks 9.4 Status of Non Expressed Vaccines 9.4.1 Subunit Vaccines 9.4.2 Biofilm Vaccines 9.4.3 Egg Yolk Edible Vaccine IgY 9.4.4 Genetically Altered Vaccine 9.5 Vector Expressed Vaccines 9.5.1 DNA Vaccine 9.5.2 RNA Vaccine 9.5.3 Recombinant Subunit Vaccine 9.5.4 Reverse Vaccine 9.6 Expression Methods for Vaccine Development 9.6.1 Bacterial Expression System 9.6.2 Yeast Expression System 9.6.3 Baculovirus Expression 9.6.4 Mammalian Cell Line Expression 9.6.5 Micro-Algal Expression 9.7 Role of Adjuvant in Vaccine Development 9.8 Safety Delivery Methods Using Nanomaterials 9.9 Conclusion and Future Direction Disclosure Statement References Chapter 10 Safety and Efficacy of Vaccines in Aquaculture 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Vaccine Administration in Aquaculture 10.3 Types of Fish Vaccines and Their Efficacies 10.3.1 Inactivated Whole-Cell Vaccines 10.3.2 Live Attenuated Vaccines 10.3.3 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Vaccines 10.3.4 Subunit Vaccines 10.4 Adjuvants for Fish Vaccines and the Protective Efficacies 10.5 Side Effects of Fish Vaccination 10.6 The Potency and Safety Testing of Fish Vaccines 10.7 The Stability of Vaccine Preparation 10.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgment Disclosure Statement References Chapter 11 Mass Vaccination in Aquaculture: Possibilities and Limitations 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Aquatic Organisms' Immune System 11.3 History and Current Progress in Vaccine Development 11.3.1 Vaccines in Commercial-Scale Fish Farming 11.4 Vaccine—Types of Administration 11.4.1 Vaccine Administration—Intraperitoneal/Intramuscular Injection Method 11.4.2 Administration of Immersion Vaccines in Aquatic Organisms 11.4.3 Oral Administration of Vaccines in Large-Scale Aqua Farming 11.4.4 Vaccine Regimes 11.5 Vaccine Development and its Challenges 11.5.1 Types of Vaccination in Aquaculture 11.5.1.1 Live Attenuated Vaccines 11.5.1.2 Nanoparticle-Based Vaccine Delivery 11.5.1.3 mRNA Vaccines 11.5.1.4 Prime Booster vs Prime Vaccination 11.5.1.5 Autogenous Vaccines 11.6 Future Perspectives of Vaccine Development 11.7 Conclusion References Section V: Vaccines in Aquaculture: Challenges and Perspectives Chapter 12 Fish Vaccination: How Close Are the Fish Farmers? 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Ideal Fish Vaccine and Benefits of Vaccination 12.3 Vaccine Development Versus Antimicrobial Treatment in Aquaculture 12.3.1 Global Trend on Antibiotic Use 12.3.2 Impact of Vaccination on Antibiotics' Use in Aquaculture 12.4 Global Status of Fish Vaccination 12.4.1 Vaccination Status of High-Priced Fish in the Established and Developed Category 12.4.2 Vaccination Status of Fish in the Established and Developing Phase 12.4.3 Fish Vaccination Status in the Under Development Stage 12.4.4 Cost of Vaccination Per Fish as a Constraint to Vaccine Development 12.5 Challenges in Vaccine Development 12.5.1 Lack of Epidemiological Data on Disease 12.5.2 Management Challenges in Polyculture and Integrated Farming System 12.5.3 Unskilled Personnel and Low Infrastructure Investment 12.5.4 Several Pathogens with Tropism for Multiple Host Species 12.5.5 Fish Production Cycle and Vaccination Regimes 12.5.6 Characterizing the Fish Immune System and the Development of Diagnostic Tools 12.5.7 Challenges in Development of Vaccines for Intracellular Replicating Bacteria 12.5.8 Challenges for the Pharmaceutical Industry in Vaccine Production 12.6 Conclusion Disclosure Statement References Chapter 13 Development of Fish Vaccines: Challenges and Future Perspectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Considering the Market From the Outset 13.3 Challenges with the Pathogen 13.4 Challenges with the Host 13.5 Challenges with Formulation 13.6 Challenges with Assessing Efficacy 13.7 Challenges Pre- and Post-Launch 13.8 Conclusion and General Outlook References Chapter 14 Fish Vaccine: From Field to Development 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Epidemiological Assessment and Field Needs 14.2.1 Field Needs and R&D Requirements 14.2.2 Epidemiology Assessment 14.2.2.1 Pathogens Choice and Disease 14.3 Vaccine Developments 14.3.1 Multifactorial Choice Between Industry Demand and Laboratory Answers 14.3.2 Field Trial and Vaccination Training 14.4 Economic Analysis: Market Evaluation 14.4.1 Field Data Analysis vs Economic Evaluation 14.5 Conclusions References Index This book is a timely reference text that highlights the role of vaccination in the fast-growing aquaculture industry. It discusses topics such as vaccine formulation, vaccine delivery, and enhancing the immune response of fish using nanoparticles. Information related to vaccine safety, ethical approval, and regulations is also discussed, together with dissemination of vaccines to fish farms across the globe. This cutting-edge book presents novel strategies to meet the growing demand for vaccines in finfish aquaculture. This book is useful to students, academics, clinicians, and professionals in the field of fisheries sciences, aquaculture, and veterinary sciences.