اکتشاف زهره به عنوان یک سیاره زمینی؛ [کنفرانس چپمن "اکتشاف زهره به عنوان یک سیاره زمینی" در ۱۳-۱۷ فوریه ۲۰۰۶ در کی لارجو، فلوریدا]

Published by the American Geophysical Union as part of the __Geophysical Monograph Series__. With the search for extra-solar planets in full gear, it has become essential to gain a more detailed understanding of the evolution of the other earth-like planets in our own solar system. Space missions to Venus, including the Soviet Veneras, Pioneer Venus, and Magellan, provided a wealth of information about this planet' enigmatic surface and atmosphere, but left many fundamental questions about its origin and evolution unanswered. This book discusses how the study of Venus will aid our understanding of terrestrial and extra-solar planet evolution, with particular reference to surface and interior processes, atmospheric circulation, chemistry, and aeronomy. Incorporating results from the recent European Venus Express mission, Exploring Venus as a Terrestrial Planet examines the open questions and relates them to Earth and other terrestrial planets. The goal is to stimulate thinking about those broader issues as the new Venus data arrive. Content: Title Page 3 Copyright 4 Contents 5 Preface 6 Exploring Venus: Major Scientific Issues and Directions 7 Introducti on 7 Highli ghts of curre nt iss ues 7 Open Questi ons: Ge ology 7 Open Questions: Atm osphere 8 Open Questi ons: Solar wind andatm ospheric escape 9 Open Questi ons: Evoluti on 10 Open Questi ons: Habitability and life 10 Open Questi ons: Tech nologyand future expl orati on 10 Conclusion 10 References 11 Geochemistry of Venus’ Surface:Current Limitations as Future Opportunities 12 Introduction 12 Volcanic Plains and Rises 13 Venus ’ Highlands 19 Conclusions 21 References 23 Surface Evolution of Venus 28 INTRODUCTION 28 HISTORY OF VENUS EXPLORATION 29 CURRENT VIEW OF SURFACEFEATURES AND UNITS 32 DISCUSSION 41 KEY QUESTIONS TO BE RESOLVEDIN FUTURE STUDIES 44 CONCLUSIONS 44 REFERENCES 45 Tectonic and Thermal Evolution of Venus and the Role ofVolatiles: Implications for Understanding the Terrestrial Planets 49 1. INTRODUCTION 49 2. BACKGROUND: TECTONIC HISTORYOF EARTH, MARS, AND VENUS 50 3. EFFECTS OF VOLATILES ON RHEOLOGY 54 4. VOLATILES AND INTERIOR CONVECTION 58 5. GEOCHEMICAL CONSEQUENCES OFSTAGNANT LID CONVECTION 59 6. STAGNANT LID CONVECTIONAND MANTLE PLUMES 62 7. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CLIMATE,VOLATILES, AND THE SOLID BODY 64 8. FUTURE MEASUREMENTS 64 9. SUMMARY 66 REFERENCES 68 Atmospheric Composition, Chemistry, and Clouds 76 1. Introduction 76 2. Summary of Observations and recentdevelopments 77 3. Sulfur Chemistry 83 4. Clouds 87 5. Chlorine chemistry 89 6. Unidentified UV and Blue Absorption 92 7. Emerging Developments : CouplingAmong Cycles and Nitric Oxide 94 8. Comparisons to Other Planets 95 9. Recommendations andFuture Directions 97 References 98 Venus Atmosphere Dynamics: A Continuing Enigma 104 1. Introduction and FocusedLitera ture Review 104 1.1 Lower Atmosphere 104 1.2 Upper Atmosphere 107 2. Maj or Unres olved Ques tions 108 2.1 Lower Atmosphere 108 2.2 Upper Atmosphere 113 3. Pri ori ties for GeneralCirc ula tion Modeli ng 113 3.1 Lower Atmosphere 113 3.2 Upper Atmosphere 115 3.3 Lower and Upper Atmosphere 117 4. Impac t of Ongoing andFuture Obser vations 117 5. Concl udi ng Remarks 119 References 120 Radiation in the Atmosphere of Venus 124 1. Introduction 124 2. Radiation field in and outside the Venu atmosphere: a syntheses of observations 124 3. Radiative energy balance 128 4. Role of radiation on the climateand evolution of Venus 131 5. Open issues and perspectives 137 References 138 Venus Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Environment:Critical Issues for Future Exploration 142 1. Introduction 142 2. The Ionosphere of Venus: What is Knownand WHAT Still Remains to be Learnedat this Time ? 144 3. An Ocean ’s-Wort h of Oxygen Escape ? 148 4. Probing the Venus Interior from Space 153 5. Lightning 155 6. Conclusions 157 References 157 Venus Express and Terrestrial Planet Climatology 160 Introducti on and Scie ntifi c Background 160 The Venus Express Missi on 161 Venus Express Scie nce Ope rati ons 162 Compa rative Climat ologyof Venus and Earth 163 Summa ry and Longer-te rm Goals 170 Refe rences 172 Experiencing Venus: Clues to the Origin,Evolution, and Chemistry of Terrestrial Planetsvia In-Situ Exploration of our Sister World 174 1. INTRODUCTION 174 2. THE NEED FOR IN-SITU EXPLORATIONOF VENUS 176 3. The Evolution of Venus : Evidence from Bulk Properties and Radar Imagery 176 4. NOBLE GASES: THE KEY TO THE PAST 178 5. BEYOND NOBLE GASES: ATMOSPHERIC LOSSAND CLIMATE THROUGH TIME 183 6. VENUS TODAY: UNDERSTANDING ACTIVEGEOLOGIC, CHEMICAL, AND DYNAMICALPROCESSES 184 7. IN-SITU EXPLORATION OF THE VENUSATMOSPHERE: POTENTIAL MISSIONARCHITECTURES 186 REFERENCES 189 Astrobiology and Venus Exploration 193 1. Introduct ion: A Brief History of Venus Exobiology 194 2. Habitable Conditions on Early Venus 195 3. Venus and Comparative Planetary Astrobiology 197 4. The Possibility of Extant Life 199 5. Planetary Protection 204 6. Future Investigations and Exploration 205 References : 206 Technology Perspectives in the Future Exploration of Venus 209 1. INTRODUCTION 209 2. EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS ON VENUS 210 3. MISSION ARCHITECTURES FOR VENUSEXPLORATION 210 3.1. Brief Overview of Historical and Ongoing Missions 210 3.2. Mission Architecture Options for the FutureExploration of Venus 213 4. SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURES FOR MISSIONS TOEXTREME ENVIRONMENTS 216 4.1. Environmental Isolation 216 4.2. Environmental Tolerance 216 4.3. Hybrid Systems 217 5. TECHNOLOGIES FOR FUTUREEXPLORATION OF VENUS 217 5.1. Orbiter Technologies 217 5.2. Protection Systems 217 5.3. Component Hardening 219 5.4. Electro-Mechanical Systems for High Temperatures 220 5.5. Testing for Extreme Environments 220 5.6. Power Storage and Power Generation 221 5.7. Mobility Technologies 222 5.8. Telecommunication Technologies and Strategies 224 6. SUMMARY 225 REFERENCES 226 Title Page ......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Contents......Page 5 Preface ......Page 6 Open Questi ons: Ge ology......Page 7 Open Questions: Atm osphere......Page 8 Open Questi ons: Solar wind andatm ospheric escape......Page 9 Conclusion......Page 10 References......Page 11 Introduction......Page 12 Volcanic Plains and Rises......Page 13 Venus ’ Highlands......Page 19 Conclusions......Page 21 References......Page 23 INTRODUCTION......Page 28 HISTORY OF VENUS EXPLORATION......Page 29 CURRENT VIEW OF SURFACEFEATURES AND UNITS......Page 32 DISCUSSION......Page 41 CONCLUSIONS......Page 44 REFERENCES......Page 45 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 49 2. BACKGROUND: TECTONIC HISTORYOF EARTH, MARS, AND VENUS......Page 50 3. EFFECTS OF VOLATILES ON RHEOLOGY......Page 54 4. VOLATILES AND INTERIOR CONVECTION......Page 58 5. GEOCHEMICAL CONSEQUENCES OFSTAGNANT LID CONVECTION......Page 59 6. STAGNANT LID CONVECTIONAND MANTLE PLUMES......Page 62 8. FUTURE MEASUREMENTS......Page 64 9. SUMMARY......Page 66 REFERENCES......Page 68 1. Introduction......Page 76 2. Summary of Observations and recentdevelopments......Page 77 3. Sulfur Chemistry......Page 83 4. Clouds......Page 87 5. Chlorine chemistry......Page 89 6. Unidentified UV and Blue Absorption......Page 92 7. Emerging Developments : CouplingAmong Cycles and Nitric Oxide......Page 94 8. Comparisons to Other Planets......Page 95 9. Recommendations andFuture Directions......Page 97 References......Page 98 1.1 Lower Atmosphere......Page 104 1.2 Upper Atmosphere......Page 107 2.1 Lower Atmosphere......Page 108 3.1 Lower Atmosphere......Page 113 3.2 Upper Atmosphere......Page 115 4. Impac t of Ongoing andFuture Obser vations......Page 117 5. Concl udi ng Remarks......Page 119 References......Page 120 2. Radiation field in and outside the Venu atmosphere: a syntheses of observations......Page 124 3. Radiative energy balance......Page 128 4. Role of radiation on the climateand evolution of Venus......Page 131 5. Open issues and perspectives......Page 137 References......Page 138 1. Introduction......Page 142 2. The Ionosphere of Venus: What is Knownand WHAT Still Remains to be Learnedat this Time ?......Page 144 3. An Ocean ’s-Wort h of Oxygen Escape ?......Page 148 4. Probing the Venus Interior from Space......Page 153 5. Lightning......Page 155 References......Page 157 Introducti on and Scie ntifi c Background......Page 160 The Venus Express Missi on......Page 161 Venus Express Scie nce Ope rati ons......Page 162 Compa rative Climat ologyof Venus and Earth......Page 163 Summa ry and Longer-te rm Goals......Page 170 Refe rences......Page 172 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 174 3. The Evolution of Venus : Evidence from Bulk Properties and Radar Imagery......Page 176 4. NOBLE GASES: THE KEY TO THE PAST......Page 178 5. BEYOND NOBLE GASES: ATMOSPHERIC LOSSAND CLIMATE THROUGH TIME......Page 183 6. VENUS TODAY: UNDERSTANDING ACTIVEGEOLOGIC, CHEMICAL, AND DYNAMICALPROCESSES......Page 184 7. IN-SITU EXPLORATION OF THE VENUSATMOSPHERE: POTENTIAL MISSIONARCHITECTURES......Page 186 REFERENCES......Page 189 Astrobiology and Venus Exploration......Page 193 1. Introduct ion: A Brief History of Venus Exobiology......Page 194 2. Habitable Conditions on Early Venus......Page 195 3. Venus and Comparative Planetary Astrobiology......Page 197 4. The Possibility of Extant Life......Page 199 5. Planetary Protection......Page 204 6. Future Investigations and Exploration......Page 205 References :......Page 206 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 209 3.1. Brief Overview of Historical and Ongoing Missions......Page 210 3.2. Mission Architecture Options for the FutureExploration of Venus......Page 213 4.2. Environmental Tolerance......Page 216 5.2. Protection Systems......Page 217 5.3. Component Hardening......Page 219 5.5. Testing for Extreme Environments......Page 220 5.6. Power Storage and Power Generation......Page 221 5.7. Mobility Technologies......Page 222 5.8. Telecommunication Technologies and Strategies......Page 224 6. SUMMARY......Page 225 REFERENCES......Page 226 Published by the American Geophysical Union as part of the Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 176. With the search for extra-solar planets in full gear, it has become essential to gain a more detailed understanding of the evolution of the other earth-like planets in our own solar system. Space missions to Venus, including the Soviet Veneras, Pioneer Venus, and Magellan, provided a wealth of information about this planet'enigmatic surface and atmosphere, but left many fundamental questions about its origin and evolution unanswered. This book discusses how the study of Venus will aid our understanding of terrestrial and extra-solar planet evolution, with particular reference to surface and interior processes, atmospheric circulation, chemistry, and aeronomy. Incorporating results from the recent European Venus Express mission, Exploring Venus as a Terrestrial Planet examines the open questions and relates them to Earth and other terrestrial planets. The goal is to stimulate thinking about those broader issues as the new Venus data arrive. With the search for extra-solar planets in full gear, it has become essential to gain a more detailed understanding of the evolution of the other earth-like planets in our own solar system. Space missions to Venus, including the Soviet Veneras, Pioneer Venus, and Magellan, provided a wealth of information about this planet' enigmatic surface and atmosphere, but left many fundamental questions about its origin and evolution unanswered.

This book discusses how the study of Venus will aid our understanding of terrestrial and extra-solar planet evolution, with particular reference to surface and interior processes, atmospheric circulation, chemistry, and aeronomy. Incorporating results from the recent European Venus Express mission, Exploring Venus as a Terrestrial Planet examines the open questions and relates them to Earth and other terrestrial planets. The goal is to stimulate thinking about those broader issues as the new Venus data arrive.